Triple Performance - User contributions [en]

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-02T10:21:31Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Type de production=Arboriculture@ Arable crops@ Tropical crops@ Forestry@ Winegrowing
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]] <ref name=":0"><nowiki>https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A9romone</nowiki></ref> <ref name=":1"><nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK200991/</nowiki></ref>.

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language" <ref name=":1" />. By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'') <ref name=":2"><nowiki>https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8224804/</nowiki></ref>.

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…) <ref name=":3"><nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10886-014-0465-6</nowiki></ref>.

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]) <ref name=":4"><nowiki>https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-010814-020627</nowiki></ref>.

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops <ref name=":5"><nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022474X23001273</nowiki></ref>.

[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|215x215px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
=== Mass trapping ===
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops <ref name=":6"><nowiki>https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/99/5/1550/2218584?login=false</nowiki></ref> <ref name=":7"><nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358614335_Awareness_creation_on_Fall_Armyworm_and_IPM_capacity_development_efforts_in_Asia</nowiki></ref>.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them|302x302px]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]] <ref name=":8"><nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10886-016-0753-4</nowiki></ref>.

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|238x238px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals <ref name=":9"><nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314264484_Development_of_an_Attract-and-Kill_Strategy_for_Drosophila_suzukii_Diptera_Drosophilidae_Evaluation_of_Attracticidal_Spheres_Under_Laboratory_and_Field_Conditions</nowiki></ref>.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides <ref name=":10"><nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1049964417300117</nowiki></ref>.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs <ref name=":11"><nowiki>https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11805885/</nowiki></ref>.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|318x318px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers <ref name=":12"><nowiki>https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407</nowiki></ref>.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture: <ref name=":13"><nowiki>https://opera-connaissances.chambres-agriculture.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=200214</nowiki></ref> <ref name=":14"><nowiki>https://achatnature.com/628-pieges-pheromones</nowiki></ref> <ref name=":15"><nowiki>https://farmonaut.com/precision-farming/pheromone-traps-in-agriculture-agriculture-maps-top-2025</nowiki></ref>
=== The Delta Trap ===
[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|136x136px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|153x153px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop <ref name=":16"><nowiki>https://www.plantarchives.org/article/200-%20Pheromone%20Traps%20in%20Insect%20Pest%20Management%20A%20Comprehensive%20Review%20of%20Their%20Applications,%20Efficacy%20and%20Future%20Directions%20in%20Integrated%20Pest%20Management.pdf</nowiki></ref> ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks <ref name=":13" /> <ref name=":15" />.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules <ref name=":16" />.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards ]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses) <ref name=":17"><nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Khaled-Abbes/publication/257224255_First_estimate_of_the_damage_of_Tuta_absoluta_Povolny_Lepidoptera_Gelecheiidae_and_evaluation_of_the_efficacy_of_sex_pheromone_traps_in_greenhouses_of_tomato_crops_in_the_Bekalta_Region_Tunisia/links/00b7d524e957f121ec000000/First-estimate-of-the-damage-of-Tuta-absoluta-Povolny-Lepidoptera-Gelecheiidae-and-evaluation-of-the-efficacy-of-sex-pheromone-traps-in-greenhouses-of-tomato-crops-in-the-Bekalta-Region-Tunisia.pdf</nowiki></ref>]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards <ref name=":18"><nowiki>https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/15/10/791</nowiki></ref> <ref name=":19"><nowiki>https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/100/6/1797/2198752?login=false</nowiki></ref>]]
[[File:Piege dans champs.png|left|thumb|266x266px|Large-scale crops <ref name=":20"><nowiki>https://www.vinopole.com/docs/confusion-sexuellecochylis-cryptoblabes-eudemis/</nowiki></ref> ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest <ref name=":21"><nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025767217376</nowiki></ref>]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed: <ref name=":22"><nowiki>https://pestcontrold.com/home-garden/the-role-of-pheromones-in-modern-pest-control/?utm_source#A_Species_Resistance</nowiki></ref>

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring) <ref name=":23"><nowiki>https://www.gammvert.fr/p/decamp-piege-a-pheromones-universel-67580daf386740fc4cf1a87c?utm_source</nowiki></ref> .
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network <ref name=":24"><nowiki>https://www.andermatt.fr/pheromones/52-piege-funnel.html?utm_source</nowiki></ref>.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare <ref name=":25"><nowiki>https://www.diproclean.com/pheromone-carpocapse-fruits-pepins-xml-274_498_521-2460.html?utm_source</nowiki></ref> .

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: <ref name=":22" /> ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: <ref name=":22" /> ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: <ref name=":22" /> ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: <ref name=":22" /> ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}<ref name=":0" /> Phéromone. In: Wikipédia [Internet]. 2025 [cited 2025 Nov 30]. Available from: https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ph%C3%A9romone&oldid=230965319

<ref name=":1" /> Kaissling KE. Pheromone Reception in Insects: The Example of Silk Moths. In: Mucignat-Caretta C, editor. Neurobiology of Chemical Communication [Internet]. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2014 [cited 2025 Nov 30]. (Frontiers in Neuroscience).

<ref name=":2" /> Rizvi SAH, George J, Reddy GVP, Zeng X, Guerrero A. Latest Developments in Insect Sex Pheromone Research and Its Application in Agricultural Pest Management. Insects. 2021 May 23;12(6):484.

<ref name=":3" /> Cardé RT. Defining Attraction and Aggregation Pheromones: Teleological Versus Functional Perspectives. J Chem Ecol. 2014 June 1;40(6):519–20.

<ref name=":4" /> Czaczkes TJ, Grüter C, Ratnieks FLW. Trail Pheromones: An Integrative View of Their Role in Social Insect Colony Organization. Annual Review of Entomology. 2015 Jan 7;60(Volume 60, 2015):581–99.

<ref name=":5" /> Hasan MM, Mahroof RM, Aikins MJ, Athanassiou CG, Phillips TW. Pheromone-based auto-confusion for mating disruption of Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in structures with raw and processed grain products. Journal of Stored Products Research. 2023 Dec 1;104:102201.

<ref name=":6" /> Potential of Mass Trapping for Long-Term Pest Management and Eradication of Invasive Species | Journal of Economic Entomology | Oxford Academic [Internet]. [cited 2025 Nov 30].

<ref name=":7" /> Chaudhary M, Choudhary B, Deshmukh S, Krupnik T, Rakshit S, Davis T. Awareness creation on Fall Armyworm, and IPM capacity development efforts in Asia. In 2021. p. 154–71.

<ref name=":8" /> Larsson MC. Pheromones and Other Semiochemicals for Monitoring Rare and Endangered Species. J Chem Ecol. 2016 Sept 1;42(9):853–68.

<ref name=":9" /> Rice K, Short B, Leskey T. Development of an Attract-and-Kill Strategy for Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae): Evaluation of Attracticidal Spheres Under Laboratory and Field Conditions. Journal of Economic Entomology. 2017 Mar 7;110.

<ref name=":10" /> Mfuti DK, Niassy S, Subramanian S, du Plessis H, Ekesi S, Maniania NK. Lure and infect strategy for application of entomopathogenic fungus for the control of bean flower thrips in cowpea. Biological Control. 2017 Apr 1;107:70–6.

<ref name=":11" /> Viklund L, Bång J, Schroeder M, Hedenström E. New Insights into the Composition of Aggregation Pheromones in Polygraphus poligraphus, Polygraphus punctifrons, Polygraphus subopacus and Polygraphus proximus. J Chem Ecol. 2025;51(1):25.

<ref name=":12" /> Cook SM, Khan ZR, Pickett JA. The Use of Push-Pull Strategies in Integrated Pest Management. Annual Review of Entomology. 2007 Jan 1;52(Volume 52, 2007):375–400.

<ref name=":13" /> GUIDE DES BONNES PRATIQUES D’UTILISATION DES PIÈGES À PHÉROMONES

<ref name=":14" /> Pièges et Phéromones anti nuisibles - achatnature.com [Internet].

<ref name=":15" /> Pheromone Traps In Agriculture, Agriculture Maps: Top 2025 [Internet]. 2025

<ref name=":16" /> PHEROMONE TRAPS IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THEIR APPLICATIONS, EFFICACY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT. PA [Internet]. 2025 Mar 10

<ref name=":17" /> Brahim C, Abbes K, Aoun M, Ben. Othmen S, Ouhibi M, Gamoon W, et al. First estimate of the damage of Tuta absoluta (Povolny) (Lepidoptera: Gelecheiidae) and evaluation of the efficacy of sex pheromone traps in greenhouses of tomato crops in the Bekalta Region, Tunisia. African Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology. 2009 Jan 1;3:49–52.

<ref name=":18" /> Carnio V, Favaro R, Preti M, Angeli S. Impact of Aggregation Pheromone Traps on Spatial Distribution of Halyomorpha halys Damage in Apple Orchards. Insects. 2024 Oct;15(10):791.

<ref name=":20" /> Phéromones | Wiki Biocontrôle en Viticulture [Internet].

<ref name=":19" /> Monitoring of European Corn Borer with Pheromone-Baited Traps: Review of Trapping System Basics and Remaining Problems | Journal of Economic Entomology | Oxford Academic [Internet].

<ref name=":21" /> Schlyter F, Zhang QH, Liu GT, Ji LZ. A successful Case of Pheromone Mass Trapping of the Bark Beetle Ips duplicatus in a Forest Island, Analysed by 20-year Time-Series Data. Integrated Pest Management Reviews. 2001 Sept 1;6(3):185–96.

<ref name=":22" /> Grant R. The Role Of Pheromones In Modern Pest Control | Pest Control’d [Internet].

<ref name=":23" /> Forestier jean pierre. Diproclean.com. [cited 2025 Nov 30]. Phéromone Papillons des Fruits Pépins - Carpocapses.

<ref name=":24" /> Décamp’ - Piège à phéromones Universel - Gamm vert [Internet].

<ref name=":25" /> Andermatt France [Internet]. [cited 2025 Nov 30]. Piège phéromone Funnel - piège insectes.

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-02T09:39:54Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:32:41Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:29:59Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): /* How to use pheromones? */

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|215x215px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
=== Mass trapping ===
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them|302x302px]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|238x238px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|318x318px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:
=== The Delta Trap ===
[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|136x136px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|153x153px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[File:Piege dans champs.png|left|thumb|266x266px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:29:37Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|215x215px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
=== Mass trapping ===
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them|302x302px]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|238x238px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|318x318px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:
=== The Delta Trap ===
[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|136x136px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|153x153px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[File:Piege dans champs.png|left|thumb|266x266px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:29:04Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|215x215px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
=== Mass trapping ===
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them|302x302px]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|238x238px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|318x318px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:
=== The Delta Trap ===
[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|136x136px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|153x153px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[File:Piege dans champs.png|left|thumb|266x266px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:27:04Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|215x215px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
=== Mass trapping ===
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them|302x302px]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|238x238px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|318x318px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:
=== The Delta Trap ===
[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|136x136px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|153x153px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[File:Piege dans champs.png|left|thumb|266x266px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:22:51Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|215x215px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
=== Mass trapping ===
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them|367x367px]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|238x238px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|374x374px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:
=== The Delta Trap ===
[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|136x136px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|153x153px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|275x275px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:16:44Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|237x237px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|276x276px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|319x319px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]

=== The Delta Trap ===
The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|182x182px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|193x193px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|255x255px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:16:21Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|237x237px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|276x276px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|319x319px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]

=== The Delta Trap ===
The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|182x182px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|193x193px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|255x255px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T12:12:48Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]

For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[File:Mass-trapping.png|thumb|237x237px|Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap]]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[File:Photo 1.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[File:Attract and kill.png|thumb|276x276px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[File:Push pull strat.png|left|thumb|319x319px|Skema illustrating the "Push-Pull" strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:[[File:DELTA-trap.webp|thumb|183x183px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]

=== The Delta Trap ===
The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[File:Funnel multi trap.png|left|thumb|182x182px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[File:Funnel petit1.png|left|thumb|148x148px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

[[File:Bouteille trap1.png|thumb|162x162px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|left|thumb|193x193px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]]Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[File:Delta trap 22.png|131x131px]]Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel noirs1.jpg|140x140px]]Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel sachet1.jpg|151x151px]]Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Funnel jaune vert1.png|150x150px]]Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg|136x136px]]Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[File:Piege punaise diabolique.png|182x182px]]Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[File:Piege dans vignes1.png|thumb|168x168px|Vineyards]]
[[File:Piege dans tunnel1.png|left|thumb|144x144px|Protected crops (tunnels, greenhouses)]]
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|center|thumb|215x215px|Orchards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|255x255px|Large-scale crops ]]
[[File:Funnel dans foret1.png|center|thumb|204x204px|Forest]]

They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T11:43:29Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Confusion sex.png|left|thumb|194x194px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T11:42:03Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg|thumb|'''Diagram illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.''']]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T11:40:38Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|219x219px|'''Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.''']]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

File:Funnel dans foret1.png

2025-12-01T11:37:38Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372031696_Monitoring_and_Surveillance_of_Forest_Insects with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Funnel dans foret1}}
|date=2023-07
|source=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372031696_Monitoring_and_Surveillance_of_Forest_Insects
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Piege dans champs.png

2025-12-01T11:36:35Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.cmonjardinier.com/piege-a-pheromones/ with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Piege dans champs}}
|date=2025
|source=https://www.cmonjardinier.com/piege-a-pheromones/
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Piege dans vignes1.png

2025-12-01T11:35:18Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.chateau-de-la-riviere.com/en/our-commitments-to-the-environment/ with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Piege dans vignes1}}
|date=2025
|source=https://www.chateau-de-la-riviere.com/en/our-commitments-to-the-environment/
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Piege dans arbre 22.jpg

2025-12-01T11:34:16Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://morningchores.com/codling-moths/ with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Piege dans arbre 22}}
|date=2025
|source=https://morningchores.com/codling-moths/
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Piege dans tunnel1.png

2025-12-01T11:32:55Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Piege dans tunnel1}}
|date=2025
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:Sarra Ayed (3359874299)|Sarra Ayed (3359874299)]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-zero}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Bouteille pheromone1.jpg

2025-12-01T11:31:04Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.agriexpo.online/fr/prod/sanidad-agricola-econex-sl/product-191343-156977.html with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Bouteille pheromone1}}
|date=2025
|source=https://www.agriexpo.online/fr/prod/sanidad-agricola-econex-sl/product-191343-156977.html
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Funnel jaune vert1.png

2025-12-01T11:30:15Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358588703_Pesticide_application_safety_and_selection_criteria_for_Fall_Armyworm_control with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Funnel jaune vert1}}
|date=2021-09
|source=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358588703_Pesticide_application_safety_and_selection_criteria_for_Fall_Armyworm_control
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Funnel sachet1.jpg

2025-12-01T11:29:21Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/agriculture-pheromone-trap-25387060155.html with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Funnel sachet1}}
|date=2010
|source=https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/agriculture-pheromone-trap-25387060155.html
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Funnel noirs1.jpg

2025-12-01T11:28:26Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-economic-entomology/volume-106/issue-1/EC12254/Attaching-Lures-to-Multiple-Funnel-Traps-Targeting-Saproxylic-Beetles-Coleoptera/10.1603/EC12254.short?tab=ArticleLinkFigureTable with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Funnel noirs1}}
|date=2013-02-01
|source=https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-economic-entomology/volume-106/issue-1/EC12254/Attaching-Lures-to-Multiple-Funnel-Traps-Targeting-Saproxylic-Beetles-Coleoptera/10.1603/EC12254.short?tab=ArticleLinkFigureTable
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Delta trap 22.png

2025-12-01T11:27:10Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.corrugatedppsheets.com/product/delta-traps-for-insects/ with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Delta trap 22}}
|date=2008
|source=https://www.corrugatedppsheets.com/product/delta-traps-for-insects/
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Piege punaise diabolique.png

2025-12-01T11:26:02Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://insectosphere.fr/153-punaises with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Piege punaise diabolique}}
|date=2025
|source=https://insectosphere.fr/153-punaises
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Bouteille trap1.png

2025-12-01T11:24:31Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287948055_Social_wasp_trapping_in_north_west_Italy_comparison_of_different_bait-traps_and_first_detection_of_Vespa_velutina with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Bouteille trap1}}
|date=2014-12
|source=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287948055_Social_wasp_trapping_in_north_west_Italy_comparison_of_different_bait-traps_and_first_detection_of_Vespa_velutina
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Funnel petit1.png

2025-12-01T11:22:47Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://maluttebio.com/pieges-a-pheromones/20-piege-a-pheromone-universel-funnel-trap.html with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Funnel petit}}
|date=2025-11-05
|source=https://maluttebio.com/pieges-a-pheromones/20-piege-a-pheromone-universel-funnel-trap.html
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Funnel multi trap.png

2025-12-01T11:20:49Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://hortulus.ee/tootekategooria/uraskipuunised-ja-feromoonid/uraskipuunised/ with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Funnel multi trap}}
|date=2021-09-15
|source=https://hortulus.ee/tootekategooria/uraskipuunised-ja-feromoonid/uraskipuunised/
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:DELTA-trap.webp

2025-12-01T11:19:18Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.iftech.fr/piege-delta-vendu-seul-c2x16403688 with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=DELTA-trap}}
|date=2022-02-10
|source=https://www.iftech.fr/piege-delta-vendu-seul-c2x16403688
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Push pull strat.png

2025-12-01T11:18:11Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407#supplementary_data with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Push pull}}
|date=2006-09-01
|source=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407#supplementary_data
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Attract and kill.png

2025-12-01T11:16:44Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by Anne Violette LAVOIR from Cours de ma professeur Anne Violette LAVOIR with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Attract and kill}}
|date=2024-11-20
|source=Cours de ma professeur Anne Violette LAVOIR
|author=Anne Violette LAVOIR
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Photo 1.png

2025-12-01T11:14:03Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324820661_Path_analysis_to_evaluate_the_direct_and_indirect_effects_of_climatic_variables_in_the_development_stages_of_Tuta_absoluta_Lepidoptera_Gelechiidae_in_tomato_Solanum_lycopersicum_L with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Photo 1}}
|date=2018-04-15
|source=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324820661_Path_analysis_to_evaluate_the_direct_and_indirect_effects_of_climatic_variables_in_the_development_stages_of_Tuta_absoluta_Lepidoptera_Gelechiidae_in_tomato_Solanum_lycopersicum_L
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Mass-trapping.png

2025-12-01T11:12:13Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by {{Unknown|author}} from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358614335_Awareness_creation_on_Fall_Armyworm_and_IPM_capacity_development_efforts_in_Asia with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Mass-trapping}}
|date=2022-02-15
|source=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358614335_Awareness_creation_on_Fall_Armyworm_and_IPM_capacity_development_efforts_in_Asia
|author={{Unknown|author}}
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

File:Confusion sex.png

2025-12-01T11:08:46Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Uploaded a work by Florent Portalez from https://www.jardins-volpette.net/2020/07/biocontrole-mediateurs-chimiques.html with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Confusion sex}}
|date=2020-07-09
|source=https://www.jardins-volpette.net/2020/07/biocontrole-mediateurs-chimiques.html
|author=Florent Portalez
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{subst:uwl}}

[[Category:Fichier chargé avec l'assistant UploadWizard]]

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T11:01:59Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|183x183px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T11:00:10Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|213x213px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T10:57:35Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|213x213px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T10:57:01Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|213x213px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T10:54:30Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|213x213px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.
=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.
=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.
=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.
=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards ]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

Use of pheromones: Natural allies for protecting crops

2025-12-01T10:47:47Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299): Created page with "{{Pratique |Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg |ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment. |Objectif=Reduction in IFT }} Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue..."

{{Pratique
|Image=Photo illustration 2.jpg
|ImageCaption=Harnessing the language of insects to better protect your crops, without chemicals inputs and without impacting the environment.
|Objectif=Reduction in IFT
}}
Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.
==Description==
[[Biological control]] is not limited to the use of [[Beneficial organisms|natural enemies]] against [[pests]]. There are many other methods that are equally effective and environmentally safe, such as the use of pheromones to control pest populations.

Pheromones, these chemical substances naturally emitted by insects, are now valuable tools for monitoring, trapping, or disrupting the reproduction of agricultural pests. They allow for the protection of crops in an ecological, targeted, and residue-free manner, while also reducing the use of chemical insecticides.

== What is a pheromone? ==
A pheromone is a molecule produced by an insect to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

It acts in very small doses and conveys a specific message: to attract a mate, signal danger, or indicate a food source.

Researchers have succeeded in reproducing these molecules in the laboratory, paving the way for their use in [[biological control]].

== Operating principle ==
Pheromones work on the principle of chemical communication. Each insect species has its own "olfactory language." By releasing a specific pheromone, we can:

* Attract males to a trap to reduce populations: mass trapping

* Saturate the surrounding air with sexual scents, preventing males and females from finding each other : sexual confusion

* Monitor populations using surveillance traps : monitoring

== The different types of pheromones used by pests ==
Pheromones can have different functions in pests:

* '''Sex pheromones:''' attract a mate for mating (e.g. Moth : ''[[Tuta absoluta]], [[Helicoverpa armigera]]…'').

* '''Aggregation pheromones:''' bring several individuals together on the same resource (e.g. Coleoptera, Bugs : weevils, stink bugs…).

* '''Trail or path pheromones:''' mark a route to a food source (as in [[Ant|ants]]).

== Usage strategies in biological control ==

=== Sexual confusion ===
[[Fichier:Ob 569129 confusion-sexuelle.png|left|thumb|213x213px|Skema illustrating how the sexual confusion strategy works.]]
For sexual confusion, sex pheromone dispensers are installed in the plot to disrupt communication between male and female pests of the same species. This helps reduce mating, thereby decreasing egg production and [[Pests|pest]] populations.

Widely used in [[Winegrowing|viticulture]], [[Arboriculture|arboriculture,]] and greenhouse crops.

=== Mass trapping ===
[[Fichier:Mass-trapping-of-FAW-male-moths-using-FAW-nanolure-technology-Figure-credit-Figure.png|thumb|265x265px|'''Mass trapping of male moths in the bag trap''']]
<div>
This technique involves capturing a large number of insects (males and femeles) to limit reproduction and kill them through the presence of sex or aggregation pheromones in the trap. It is effective in orchards, greenhouses, and enclosed vegetable crops.

=== Monitoring (population tracking) ===
[[Fichier:Photo.png|left|thumb|Delta trap containing a pheromone capsule to attract males and a sticky trap to catch and trap them]]Monitoring involves tracking the evolution of pest populations over time in order to determine periods of flight, mating, or infestation. The trap used here are not intended to eliminate insects at the beginning, but to detect their presence and anticipate treatments or control interventions.

Monitoring involves placing sticky traps equipped with sex or aggregation pheromones to attract and detect the early presence of a pest and to decide the right time to take action. In this type of trap, the pheromone is released by a special capsule placed inside the trap called Rubber septa. This capsule acts as a source of artificial pheromones that mimics the natural pheromones emitted by femele insects. It is the most common method, used in almost all [[Crops and productions|crops]].

[[Fichier:Attract.png|thumb|264x264px|Skema showing the butterfly being attracted to the pheromone capsule, which then ends up in the insecticide trap (Attract then kill)]]

=== The "Attract-and-Kill" strategy ===
In this strategy, pheromones are combined with a food lure or an insecticidal surface. They selectively attract pests to a specific point where they are then eliminated. This method helps reduce insecticide treatments at the plot level by targeting only the attracted individuals.

=== The 'Lure-and-Infect' strategy ===
In this case, pheromones attract pests to a dissemination point of a pathogen (entomopathogenic fungus, virus, or [[nematode]]). The insects become infected there and then spread the pathogen within their population. This is an innovative approach that combines chemical communication and natural biopesticides.

=== Aggregation and anti-aggregation ===
Aggregation pheromones can be used to gather pests in areas where they can be more easily trapped or treated. Conversely, anti-aggregation pheromones repel individuals, preventing them from colonizing a given area. These strategies are tested, for example, for weevils, bark beetles, and stink bugs.

=== The 'Push-Pull' strategy ===
[[Fichier:Push pull.png|left|thumb|Skema illustrating the 'Push-Pull' strategy]]The principle is based on a combination of attractive and repellent signals:

* The “'''push'''” uses repellent agents like reppelent plants or avoidance pheromones to drive the pest away from the main crop.
* The “'''pull'''” employs attractive agents like trap plants or dispensers of attractive pheromones to concentrate them elsewhere.

It is a comprehensive agroecological approach, already used against certain moths, [[aphids]], and maize borers.

== The different types of traps using pheromones ==
The choice of trap depends on the type of insect targeted, its behavior (flying, crawling, attracted to a particular color, etc.), the type of the crop, and the goal (monitoring, mass trapping, or mating disruption). Here are the main models used in agriculture:

=== The Delta Trap ===
[[Fichier:DELTA-big.webp|thumb|189x189px|Photo of a Delta trap hanging from a tree]]The delta trap is undoubtedly the most commonly used in monitoring programs. It is shaped like a small triangle made of cardboard or plastic, inside which there is a sticky plate and a pheromone capsule. When a male insect is attracted by the scent, it sticks to the plate, allowing easy counting of the captures. This type of trap is very effective for monitoring pest moths.

Lightweight, economical, and easy to install, it must nevertheless be protected from rain and dust to maintain its effectiveness.

=== The funnel trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel trap.png|left|thumb|173x173px|Photo of an example of a multi-funnel trap set up on a forest tree]]The funnel trap is designed to capture large quantities of insects. It consists of a plastic funnel leading to a collection container placed below. The pheromone attracts pests, who fall inside and cannot escape. This system is particularly used for large-sized coleopterans.

Very sturdy and weather-resistant, it is well suited for mass trapping or long-term monitoring. The only drawback: it is a bit bulky and needs to be emptied regularly.

=== The Bucket Trap ===
[[Fichier:Funnel petit.png|thumb|190x190px|Photo of a bucket trap installed in a fruit tree]]The bucket trap works on the same principle as the funnel trap but in a simpler form: a plastic bucket with a lid and side openings. The pheromone capsule is suspended inside, attracting insects that fall into the bucket and cannot escape. This device is often used for the mass trapping of nocturnal moths and borers.

Very sturdy, it withstands open-field conditions well, particularly in large-scale crops.

=== The Bottle Trap ===
[[Fichier:Bouteille piege.png|left|thumb|159x159px|Photo of a bottle used as an insect trap.]]The bottle trap is a simple and economical solution, often made from recycled plastic bottles. With a few holes drilled and equipped with a pheromone cap, the bottle attracts insects that enter, cannot get out and then die from drowning or poisoning. This system is particularly appreciated for artisanal or local monitoring of pests such as certain [[Fly|flies moths]]<nowiki/>es, or beetles. Although inexpensive and easy to make yourself, it must be replaced regularly, as it deteriorates over time and with exposure to the weather.

=== Aggregation trap ===
[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|thumb|220x220px|Photo of an example of an aggregation trap used against stink bugs]] Aggregation traps use aggregation pheromones, which attract both males and females of the same species to the same resource. This type of trap is particularly effective against beetles (such as [[Weevil|weevils]] or [[Bark beetle|bark beetles]]) and certain bugs. It is often used for mass trapping or monitoring populations in orchards, palm groves, large crops, and sometimes in wooded areas.

=== Summary Table : Choice of Pheromone Trap According to Pest and Crop ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of trap
!Targeted pests
!Crops concerned
!Type of pheromone
!Usage Objective
|-
|[[Fichier:Delta trap 2.png|117x117px]] ''' ''' Delta trap
|'''- Lepidoptera''' (tortrix moths, cutworms, clothes moths)
| - '''Vegetable crops''' under greenhouse or tunnel
- '''Orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel noirs.jpg|118x118px]] Multiple funneltrap
| -'''Wood-boring beetles''' (bark beetles, longhorn beetles...)
| - '''Forests'''
- '''Palm groves'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel sachet.jpg|119x119px]] Funnel trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large-scale crops''' (corn, cotton, soy)
- '''Open field'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Funnel jaune vert.png|116x116px]] Bucket trap
| - '''Lepidoptera''' (moths, migratory butterflies)
| - '''Large crops'''
- '''Tropical orchards'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Bouteille pheromone.jpg|102x102px]] ''' '''Bottle trap
| - '''Diptera''' (fruit flies)
- '''Coleoptera'''

- '''Lepidoptera'''
| - '''Fruit crops'''
'''-Vegetable crops'''

- '''Tropical crops'''
| - '''Sex Pheromones'''
| - '''Monitoring'''
- '''Artisanal mass trapping'''
|-
|[[Fichier:Piege punaise.png|135x135px]] Aggregation trap
| - '''Beetles''' (weevils, bark beetles)
- '''True bugs''' (stink bugs)
| - '''Field crops'''
- '''Orchards'''

- '''Ornamental crops'''
| - '''Aggregation pheromone'''
| - '''Mass trapping'''
|}
</div>

== How to use pheromones? ==
For optimal use, traps or dispensers should be installed at the start of the season, before the first pest flights. The choice of device should be suited to the target species: funnel traps, delta traps, buckets, bottles, or other specific models.

Pheromone capsules must be replaced regularly, generally every 4 to 6 weeks depending on environmental conditions. In greenhouses or under tunnels, heat increases evaporation and speeds up pheromone degradation, so it is recommended to change the capsules every 4 weeks. In open fields or orchards, where conditions are often cooler and more stable, their effective duration can sometimes reach 6 to 8 weeks.

Used capsules may still contain remnants of pheromones, which are considered as biopesticides, so they should not be thrown into regular trash or discarded in nature. The best practice would be to gather the used capsules in a sealed bag or container and then deposit them in the specific agricultural waste stream, through a system such as [https://www.adivalor.fr/ ADIVALOR] or collection of plant protection waste (at authorized distributors, cooperatives, chambers of agriculture, etc.).If no specific collection exists, they should be treated as non-hazardous chemical waste: at a waste disposal site, specifying that it is "used [[biocontrol]] material." Some companies that supply the capsules (e.g., [https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM]…) offer take-back or recovery programs for used capsules.

== Where to use pheromones? ==
Pheromones can be used on a wide range of crops:
[[Fichier:Piege dans tunnel.png|left|thumb|163x163px|Protected crops (tunnel, greenhouses)]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans vignes.png|thumb|166x166px|Vineyards]]
[[Fichier:Piege dans arbre 2.jpg|center|thumb|188x188px|Orchards ]]
<div></div>
[[Fichier:Piege dans champs 2.webp|left|thumb|210x210px|Large-scale crops]]
[[Fichier:Funnel dans foret.png|center|thumb|237x237px|Forest]]
They are effective in both organic and conventional production.

== When to use pheromones? ==
The installation depends on the pest's life cycle.

In general, pheromones are placed:

* Before the first flights (spring) for lepidopterans to prevent mating

* Continuously, for pests present throughout the season

* And adjustments are made based on trapping observations

== How can one obtain pheromones? ==
Pheromones and their traps are available:

* At agricultural cooperatives ([https://www.coop-valsiagne.fr/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cata-WEB_valsiagne_Lutte-biologique-2020.pdf?utm_source Coopérative Valsiagne Pro], [https://uneal.com/phyto/1001/10014/p/U000215/insecticide-ginko-pac-400-sachets-diff?utm_source Unéal]…)

* From suppliers specializing in [[biological control]] and integrated protection ([https://www.biobest.com/fr-FR Biobest], [https://www.koppert.fr/ Koppert], [https://www.sumiagro.fr/ SumiAgro], [https://russellipm.com/ Russell IPM], etc.)

* On certain authorized professional specialized websites.

== How much do pheromones cost? ==
Costs vary depending on several factors: the crop to be protected, its size, the targeted pest species, and the strategy:

* '''Pheromone capsule:''' €3 to €10 each, approximately 30 to 100 € per hectare, depending on the number of traps installed (often 10 to 20 traps/ha for monitoring)
* '''Complete trap:''' €10 to €30 depending on the model around €100 to €300 per hectare for a standard monitoring network.
* '''Mating disruption:''' approximately €80 to €250 per hectare

== Advantages of using pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Significant reduction in pest populations.
* Fewer chemical insecticide treatments used → cost savings and better production image.
* Compatible with other biological control methods.
* Easy to use and integrate into an overall strategy.

=== For the environment: ===

* Species-specific (no impact on [[Beneficial organisms|beneficial insects]], helpful organisms, [[Pollinator|pollinators]], or humans).
* No chemical residues or toxic compounds left in the environment.
* Preservation of [[biodiversity]] and ecological balance.

== Limitation on the use of pheromones ==

=== For the producer: ===

* Initial cost higher than a conventional insecticide (Higher initial cost but often offset in the long term by a reduction in the number of treatments, resulting in a lower cost per treatment and better durability of results)
* Effectiveness depends on pest density and the size of the treated area (better on a large scale)
* Requires good knowledge of the pest's life cycle to know when to apply the pheromone precisely
* Some species do not yet have an available pheromone
* Some pests can develop resistance to the pheromones used.

=== For the environment: ===

* Little direct impact if the pest migrates from untreated areas
* Sensitive to weather conditions (heat, wind)
* Regular monitoring is necessary to prevent recurrences

== References ==

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

File:Photo illustration 2.jpg

2025-12-01T09:02:48Z

Sarra Ayed (3359874299):