Triple Performance - User contributions [en]

Ploughing

2026-02-19T09:40:26Z

Bertrand Gorge:

{{Pratique
| Nom = Ploughing
| Icone = Labour.png
| Glyph = Labour
| Image = Concours de labour de Boissia - Tracteur Massey relevant après labour (juil 2018).jpg
| ImageCaption = Ploughing
| Mots-clés = Soil cover
}}Ploughing is an agricultural technique that consists of '''turning over the top layer of soil using a plough'''. This operation traditionally aims to bury crop residues, control weeds, loosen the soil, and prepare the seedbed. Ploughing can be performed at different depths, depending on the farmer's objectives and the nature of the soil.

Agroecology aims to reconcile agricultural production with respect for the ecosystem. In this perspective, traditional ploughing is increasingly questioned in favor of alternative practices that preserve soil health.

== Objectives of ploughing ==
=== Soil loosening ===
Ploughing allows '''loosening the soil''' by turning the earth up to 30 cm deep, which breaks the surface crust and aerates the soil. Ploughing thus facilitates crop rooting and improves water and air circulation<ref name=":0">https://www.inrae.fr/actualites/agriculture-conservation-se-passer-labour-pas-si-facile</ref>.

The loosened soil after ploughing facilitates crop emergence. However, this advantage is only valid in the '''short term'''.

=== Weed reduction ===
Turning over the soil '''limits competition for young plants'''. Ploughing allows burying seeds and weeds found on the surface between 20 and 30 cm deep. At this depth, '''seeds cannot germinate'''. Ploughing thus eliminates weeds without using herbicides.

To ensure good weed control, it is necessary to properly adjust the plough:

* First, before hitching the plough, '''make sure the tractor tires are properly inflated''' as well as '''the length and position of the skimmers''' : the length must be identical on the left and right, and a rear position on the lift arm ensures better lifting performance.
* For the plough, it is better to '''use helical mouldboards''' because they allow better turning by accompanying the soil flow longer.
* '''The height of the skimmers must also be well chosen''' to optimize turning. This height must be equal to the ploughing depth. If the skimmer is too high, burial will be less effective; if it is too low, turning will not be properly done.
* '''The position of the skimmer supports''' must also be chosen according to objectives: an advanced position for better burial and a rear position to avoid clogging with plant debris<ref name=":1">https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/bien-regler-sa-charrue#:~:text=Il%20convient%20plut%C3%B4t%20de%20viser,profondeur%20de%2020%20cm%20minimum</ref>.
{{Image|Image=labour reglage hauteur rasettes.jpg| Légende=In this case, the setting corresponds to a working depth of 25 cm. Photo credit: Arvalis}}
{{Image|Image=labour reglages rasettes.jpg| Légende=Skimmer support in intermediate position. The intermediate position allows a compromise between burial and clogging.
Photo credit: Arvalis}}

=== Rapid incorporation of amendments and plant residues ===
Ploughing allows '''mixing and burying amendments'''. Fertilizers and [[Compost|composts]] are thus better distributed in the soil profile. It also accelerates the decomposition of plant residues and enriches the soil in organic matter in the short term<ref name=":0" />.

=== Pest and disease management ===
Ploughing '''disrupts the cycle of certain harmful organisms''' by modifying soil properties, in the same way it impacts beneficial microorganisms for crops.

==Disadvantages of ploughing==

=== Erosion and soil loss ===
Bare soil is more '''vulnerable to erosion by wind and water'''. Moreover, when ploughing along the slope, aggregates and soil clods move downhill, causing soil loss at the top of the plot. '''This soil loss is problematic for long-term fertility''' because soil formation is a slow process. Soils lose on average '''1.5 tons of earth per hectare per year''' in France while only about '''one ton per hectare per year''' is formed. Depending on the region, the difference is sometimes even more marked: in Europe, the average soil erosion rate is 17t/ha/year<ref>https://www.supagro.fr/ress-pepites/ingenierieprobleme/co/2_3_DegradationSol.html</ref><ref>https://www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/les-sols-en-france-synthese-des-connaissances-en-2022</ref>.

=== Decrease in soil life ===
Turning over disturbs soil organisms. Indeed, ploughing '''modifies the soil structure but also the distribution of organic matter and nutrients, temperature, and moisture'''.

For example, earthworms are impacted by the mechanical action itself, by the turning of the earth which can cause desiccation, and also by greater exposure to predators.

Fungi are also disturbed because their mycelium is damaged by the mechanical action of ploughing, and macroaggregates which represent their physical habitat in the soil are destroyed<ref>https://nature-et-savoirs.adwed.fr/bdd/les-enjeux/les-enjeux-de-la-nature/etude-d-impact-du-sol-cultures.pdf</ref>.

=== Decrease in soil fertility ===
Ploughing causes a '''decrease in the rate of [[organic matter]] in soils'''. By turning the earth, organic matter is '''exposed to oxygen''' which leads to its '''rapid mineralization'''. In the short term, this provides many nutrients for crops but in the long term, organic matter is not renewed and soil fertility decreases<ref>https://agricultureduvivant.org/lagroecologie/limiter-le-travail-du-sol-des-techniques-simplifiees-au-non-ploughing/</ref>.

=== Degradation of soil structure ===
In the long term, repeated ploughing can cause the formation of a '''plough pan.''' This is a compact layer a few centimeters thick located at the base of the ploughed zone, under the share's passage. This layer '''limits the passage of water and air'''. Thus, below the plough pan, anoxic conditions form, and above it, the soil can become waterlogged because water no longer drains deeply. Furthermore, roots have difficulty crossing this layer, limiting crop development<ref>https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semelle_de_labour#:~:text=La%20semelle%20de%20labour%20est,passage%20du%20soc%20de%20charrue</ref>.

To break this plough pan, it is possible to perform '''subsoiling or deep ripping''' depending on the depth of the plough pan: beyond 50 cm depth, subsoiling is appropriate. It is recommended to check with a spade during the tool's passage that it reaches the compacted zones to be worked<ref>https://www.perspectives-agricoles.com/sites/default/files/imported_files/397_284578109318259179.pdf</ref>.

To avoid the formation of a plough pan, it is preferable to '''limit soil work, establish cover crops with deep root systems''', and if soil work is necessary, '''avoid frequent passage of heavy machinery''' and work on '''well-drained soil.'''

=== Energy dependence ===
Labour requires significant fuel consumption.

==Alternative practices==

=== Reduced tillage techniques===
[[Conservation tillage|Simplified cropping techniques]] such as [[no-till]] or [[strip-till]] limit soil turnover while preparing the seedbed. Soil work may sometimes be necessary but ploughing is not necessarily required; these techniques thus offer a compromise. Strip-till works only the seed row, and no-till consists of sowing without any soil work.

=== Cover crops===
Establishing [[Cover crop|covers]] between main crops '''protects the soil, limits erosion, and enriches the soil in organic matter'''. Indeed, cover crop roots improve soil porosity. Moreover, the cover prevents leaving the soil bare during the intercrop period. This both protects the soil from wind erosion and combats erosion related to runoff because covers improve water infiltration into the soil<ref>https://agriculture-de-conservation.com/sites/agriculture-de-conservation.com/IMG/pdf/non_labour_TSL_zanella.pdf</ref>.

=== Diversify and lengthen crop rotation ===
The diversity of root systems allows '''structuring the soil by promoting its porosity''' and limiting compaction. Thus, in a no-till system, it is necessary to have a [[Crop rotation|longer and more diversified rotation]] to promote better soil structure.

=== Agroforestry and hedges ===
In [[Agroforestry]], trees and [[Hedge|hedges]] form a '''mechanical barrier against wind and rain,''' which helps limit erosion, and their deep root systems help structure the soil.

==Implementation==

*'''Assess the need for ploughing:''' adapt the frequency and depth of ploughing according to soil type, climate, and crops.
*'''Prefer soil work at the right time:''' work soil that is neither too dry nor too wet to limit compaction.
*'''Do not work the soil too deeply:''' ploughing should be as shallow as possible to avoid mixing aerobic and anaerobic soil layers. Indeed, this mixing causes organic matter fermentation instead of mineralization. This limits the soil's natural fertility.

*'''Gradually introduce alternatives:''' test simplified cropping techniques, no-till, or cover crops on part of the farm to see if it is possible to favor these solutions.
*'''Observe soil life:''' a living soil (presence of earthworms, crumbly structure) is an indicator of suitable practices.
* '''Adjust ploughing speed:''' on average, the recommended speed is 4 to 8 km/h. This speed varies depending on soil type and the objective. Too high a speed prevents deep burial of all weed seeds<ref name=":1" />.

==When to plough?==
If ploughing is essential, it is important to choose the ploughing period carefully to avoid weakening the soil.

*'''In clay soils''', it is preferable to '''plough early in the season''', on well-drained but not completely dry soil.
*'''In sandy or crusting soils,''' it is advised to '''plough later''' in the season to avoid precipitation reducing the porosity created by ploughing or compacting the freshly loosened soil. This prevents the formation of a crust.

It is better '''not to plough every year'''. Alternating plough/no-plough avoids bringing to the surface weed seeds buried the previous year.

Moreover, '''it is not recommended to plough when there is a risk of frost'''. Indeed, ploughing promotes water evaporation by aerating the soil. This evaporation increases humidity, which increases losses. For example, in viticulture, a 25% increase in humidity causes a 50% additional bud loss in the case of a spring frost<ref>https://www.vitisphere.com/actualite-98525--pas-de-travail-du-sol-dans-les-vignes-avant-un-gel-sinon-bonjour-les-degats-.html</ref>.

==Appendices==
{{Technique temoignages}}
{{Pages liées}}

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<references />
[[de:Arbeit]]
[[fr:Labour]]
[[el:Εργασία]]
[[es:Trabajo]]
[[fi:Työvoima]]
[[hu:Munka]]
[[it:Lavoro]]
[[nl:Arbeid]]
[[pl:Praca]]
[[pt:Trabalho]]
[[ar:العمل]]

Culture transplantation

2026-02-18T13:26:40Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Crop transplantation.jpg
| Type de production=Maraîchage@ PPAM
}}

{{Pages liées}}
'''Transplanting [[:Category:Crops|crops]] consists of growing the seedling under shelter (nursery, greenhouse) before planting it in open ground'''. The objectives are to:

* '''save time on growth''' (a transplanted plant starts faster than a seed that must germinate in the soil)
* '''secure germination'''
* better '''manage weeds'''
* '''improve the uniformity''' of the crop.

== Transplanting in open ground ==

=== Procedure ===
Transplanting causes a '''halt in plant development for a few days''', so it must be placed in the best conditions for its growth to resume properly. Seedlings can be classified into three categories according to the '''depth''' at which they should be buried:

* '''Collar-floating seedlings''' which should be '''barely buried''' (collar slightly above the soil) because they are sensitive to rot ([[lettuce]], [[strawberry]], [[beet]], and [[artichoke]] for example)
* Seedlings with '''collar at soil level''', that is '''buried up to the base of the first two leaves'''. This depth concerns the majority of seedlings.
* Seedlings with '''buried collar''', in this case the '''collar and the first leaves of the seedling are buried''' ([[eggplant]], [[chili pepper]], [[leek]], [[tomato]], [[bell pepper]], [[cabbage]] for example).

=== Timing ===
Transplanting is done when seedlings have '''2-3 leaves and a suitable size''' to be strong enough to withstand the change of environment. Most often, it is done in '''spring for annual plants''' and in '''autumn for woody and perennial plants'''.

== Advantages ==

* The transplanted crop is '''vigorous and developed''', thus it captures water and [[nutrients]] before the weeds.
* The crop '''covers the soil more quickly''' which leaves less space and light for weeds.
* Seedlings are '''more robust and produce faster''' than direct sowing in open ground.

== Disadvantages ==

* Requires a lot of '''labor'''.
* Transplanting can be a '''source of stress''' for the crops, so it must be done very carefully.

== Agricultural systems adapted to transplanting ==
Transplanting is mainly used in:

* [[market gardening]]
* aromatic plants
* high value-added productions

== Sources ==

* Agri-réseau. Production de transplants. [29/01/2026]. https://www.agrireseau.net/agriculturebiologique/documents/MARAI_Chapitre_6Production_transplants.pdf
* Roland Gerhards, Michael Spaeth, Alexandra Heyn et Marcus Saile. 2025. Sensor-Guided Mechanical Weed Control in Transplanted Lettuce and Cabbage. [29/01/2026]. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10343-025-01139-3
* Growsters. 2022. Repiquage : tout ce qu’il faut savoir. [29/01/2026]. https://growsters.fr/nos-articles/repiquage-tout-ce-quil-faut-savoir/#dropdown
[[de:Kulturtransplantation]]
[[fr:Transplantation_de_culture]]
[[de:Kulturtransplantation]]
[[el:Μεταμόσχευση_καλλιέργειας]]
[[es:Transplante_de_cultivo]]
[[fi:Kasvinsiirto]]
[[hu:Kultúrnövény-átültetés]]
[[it:Trapianto_di_coltura]]
[[nl:Cultuurtransplantatie]]
[[pl:Przeszczep_kultury]]
[[pt:Transplante_de_cultura]]
[[ar:زرع_الثقافة]]

Solarization

2026-02-18T13:26:18Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Type de production=Market gardening
| Objectif=Weeds@ Weed control by soil covering
| Image = Exemple de la solarisation.jpg
}}
Solarization is a '''[[weed control]]''' method that consists of eliminating '''dormant seeds''' stored in the soil, and '''seedlings''' by heat. This practice can also help fight against '''[[soilborne pathogens]]''' and/or '''[[nematodes]]'''.

It is the '''increase in soil temperature''' (up to '''40°C to 50°C''' or more under shelter) that promotes seed germination and accelerates their degradation by increasing the rates of microbial and chemical processes in the soil. It is performed before planting.

Although the use of plastic may not seem ecological, it is a temporary method that can help clean the soil of dormant seeds and then, after a few years, allow to do without it.

==Principle==

*'''Where''': Soil solarization is more effective in '''[[:Category:Regions|warm and sunny regions]]'''; otherwise, shading is preferred. Solarization is optimal in areas where the slope is low or nonexistent, or when the slope faces south or southwest. Solarization of areas on north-facing slopes is not as effective.
* '''When''': It is recommended to implement solarization between '''early May and June 15''' and leave it in place for a minimum of '''30 days'''. The highest soil temperatures occur when days are long, temperatures are high, skies are clear, and [[wind]] is low. The soil warming effect is not as strong on cloudy days. Wind disperses trapped heat and can detach or damage the plastic sheets. Shaded areas may not be effectively treated by solarization. Solarization is more effective when performed during the hottest weeks of the year.
* '''Duration''': '''between 30 and 60 days before sowing''' or planting the crop. It is recommended to perform solarization every 2-3 years for maintenance and at least two consecutive years if the soil is heavily contaminated.
*'''Against what?''' This practice is useful to fight against [[weeds]] and some [[fungi]] soilborne pathogens: [[Olpidium brassicae|Olpidium]], [[Sclerotinia|Sclerotinia]], and [[Pythium]] on [[lettuce]] and ginger; [[Rhizoctonia solani|Rhizoctonia]]; Sclerotinia and [[Rhizoctonia]] on [[melon]]; [[Fusarium solani]] on [[zucchini]]; Sclerotium on [[yam]]; Against the [[bacterium]] Ralstonia solanacearum on solanaceous plants.
*'''Advantages:'''
**Technique usable in '''conventional farming''' and [[Organic farming|organic]].
**No waiting period before replanting, '''no toxicity''', '''no residues'''.
**After several years, if the weed seed bank in the soil is well reduced, it can be done without.
** Effective '''against many weeds''' and '''some [[pests]]''' of the soil (pupae, larvae, [[nematodes]]).
**'''Starter-type side effect''' observed on some vegetable crops due to mineralization of organic matter and microbial biomass on the surface.

*'''Disadvantages:'''
** The main limitation remains '''sunlight''' in the implementation area at the planned period. Besides sufficient cumulative global radiation over the entire covering period, a key point is the '''rapid temperature rise needed within the first 3 days''' after laying the plastic sheet.
** '''Long method:''' it requires the availability of plots for a sufficient duration, at least 4 weeks.
**Practice adapted rotations to have '''free surfaces at the end of spring.'''
**'''Limited effectiveness for''' '''perennial plants''': treatment periods must be extended.
**Not very effective against '''deeply buried weed seeds''' and against weeds with '''vegetative propagation.'''

==Equipment==

*'''Choice of plastic:'''
**The plastic used must be '''transparent''', made of '''polyethylene''' 30 to 50 μm thick, non-perforated, treated '''UV-resistant''' and '''resistant to 700 hours of sunlight''' (special solarization). The width of the plastic should be that of the tunnel plus 50 cm. In open field, tarps of 3.60 m, 4.70 m or 5.80 m can be used.
**'''Many other types of plastics''' can be used. Plastics designed for large-scale solarization are generally treated with an ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor so they do not degrade as quickly in sunlight.
**For small areas, plastic rolls from 0.025 to 0.1 mm can last the 4 to 6 weeks of the solarization period without starting to degrade. When available, choose '''clear and transparent films''' rather than cloudy, milky or translucent materials that '''reduce sunlight.'''
* '''Plastic thickness:''' Thin plastic allows better heating but is also more prone to '''tearing''' due to wind or animals walking on it (0.025 mm). Slightly thicker plastic is preferable in windy areas (0.037 to 0.05 mm). Thick plastic, 0.1 mm or more, is durable and '''can be reused for several years'''. Reuse can be practiced on a small scale when it is possible to remove and fold/roll it manually. For single use, thin films are generally preferred as they are cheaper and generate less waste compared to thicker single-use films.
*'''Recovery:''' It is possible to use greenhouse plastic (e.g., 6 mm polyethylene recovered from greenhouses after 3 to 6 years of use), provided it is free of holes. For covering, sturdy silage tarps are popular.

==Process==
{{Image | Image = Désherbage solaire.png | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Légende = Steps of solarization (Illustration by W. Suckow.)}}

#'''Soil preparation''': soil preparation is equivalent to a false seedbed.
#*'''Avoid deep loosening''' by plowing or rototilling, but favor toothed tools ([[cultivator]], ridge former, actisol) that maintain seed positioning in the soil profile. The goal is to keep the maximum number of seeds to germinate near the surface.
#*'''A very smooth soil''' (use a [[roller]]), with few clods and surface litter, will allow the plastic sheet to lie firmly on the soil, producing fewer air pockets, reducing the risk of tearing by wind and reducing heat dissipation risks.
#* If the plastic sheet is applied on '''a prepared seedbed''', it allows later planting with little soil disturbance, minimizing chances of bringing up buried weed seeds that survived the treatment. Preparing a seedbed can also improve soil water retention capacity.
# '''Moisten the soil''' for better results.
#*Wet seeds are more sensitive to '''thermal destruction''' than dry seeds, and moisture can '''stimulate germination'''. Water also increases conductivity, allowing heat to be transported deeper into the soil profile to reach more deeply buried seeds.
#*The soil must '''remain moist''' throughout the solarization period to ensure good '''heat conduction''' at depth. Sprinkler irrigation providing 50 to 80 mm (or more depending on soil) to fully saturate the soil to 50 cm depth (amount depending on soil type) should be done before laying the plastic. [[Irrigation]] or waiting for rain can increase solarization effectiveness.
#*If the soil then becomes dry during solarization, do not irrigate again, as this lowers soil temperature and would prolong the time needed for successful solarization.
#'''Apply the plastic:''' the closer the plastic is to the soil surface, the better the heating.
#* Wait until the next day or the day after, when the soil is a bit '''dry enough''', before laying the [[plastic sheet]]. It must be well stretched and pressed to the soil (to prevent weed growth). A light sprinkling after laying improves plastic adhesion.
#*Laying can be done only on planting strips, but applying it over the entire field can make solarization more effective, as heat loss at edges is reduced. This avoids leaving bare soil where weeds can survive.
#*'''Tight fixing of the plastic edges''' leads to better results. A success factor will be the '''sealing between joints'''. To ensure good holding of the sheet, dig 10 to 15 cm along the edges to bury the plastic.
#*During [[installation]], it is imperative to have at least '''3 consecutive sunny days''' for rapid temperature rise and to prevent development of some weeds.
#*In case of [[:Category:Crops|crops]] under shelter, to have a rapid temperature rise, it is recommended to keep greenhouses closed for a few days while avoiding too high temperatures that could damage equipment, especially some irrigation installations. For this, it is recommended to leave, for example, a ridge ventilation (about 20 cm) to create a "chimney" effect.
#*The '''first days of solarization are crucial''' to eliminate germinating weeds, especially [[purslane]]. Check the weather forecast to ensure at least 3 consecutive days of full sun from the moment of mulching to achieve rapid temperature rise under the plastic film.
#*'''Alternative:''' to treat small areas in cooler climates, it may be useful to use a double layer of plastic with an air space created by objects such as plastic bottles or PVC pipes between layers. This method has been shown to increase soil temperature by 1 to 5°C more than temperatures obtained with a single layer of transparent plastic.
#'''Wait:''' The plastic film must remain in place for a '''minimum duration of 45 days''' '''for crops under shelter''' and '''60 days for open field crops'''. The lower the soil temperature, the longer the plastic must remain to raise the temperature to desired levels. The goal is to maintain daily maximum temperatures in the top 15 centimeters of soil at about '''43 to 52°C or higher'''. Using a soil thermometer or thermal probe allows checking that these temperatures are reached.
# '''The cropping period:'''
#*Solarization should be stopped '''as late as possible''' before replanting by first removing the plastic sheet. The soil, if necessary, is then worked superficially (maximum 10 cm) to avoid bringing up soil layers with [[pests]] and weeds that could not be destroyed by the technique.
#*Solarization '''stimulates mineralization''' of [[organic matter]], so it is recommended to monitor [[nitrogen]] content in the soil and adjust nitrogen [[fertilization]] accordingly.
#*Plant when soil temperature has '''dropped to 20°C''' and plan for recycling or storage of the plastic if it can be reused.
#*'''Minimize soil disturbance''' after removing the plastic to avoid bringing up new weed seeds from below.

===Option===

* '''Addition of [[organic]] matter:''' it is possible to '''increase the effects''' of solarization by incorporating organic materials, such as crop residues and composts, into the soil before solarization. During decomposition of organic matter, chemical changes occur, releasing some natural products, such as organic acids, which are toxic to soil organisms. However, care must be taken not to incorporate excessive amounts of organic matter as the treated soil may be impacted for a prolonged period by these natural toxins. In this case, planting should be delayed until soil conditions are adequate. Moreover, treated soil can be detoxified by irrigation, which leaches organic acids and other toxins below the root zone.

==Comparison with the [[shading]] method==
Solarization uses a transparent sheet and is more effective in a warm and sunny climate, while [[shading]] uses a black sheet and is more effective in [[:Category:Regions|colder regions]] or with more shade and wind.

*'''Temperature:''' it is higher with '''solarization'''. During solarization, light waves penetrate the transparent plastic and directly heat the soil underneath. The heat is then trapped under the plastic by a '''greenhouse effect'''. With a black sheet, solar energy is absorbed by the plastic, some heat is transferred to the soil and some is lost to the surrounding air. Applying a double layer of transparent plastic, or transparent over black, can further increase temperatures and effectiveness.
*'''Light-dependent germination:''' the black sheet could block germination of some seeds. Light is an '''important signal for germination''' of many species, and for '''[[photosynthesis]]''' of plants.

==Possible combinations==
[[Shading]] can be combined with solarization in conditions requiring optimization of the weed control technical itinerary. This may be the case in anticipation of early [[carrot]] sowing or for establishing a [[leek]] nursery. One would then use summer solarization (early August – late September) followed by shading to keep the plot clean until planting after winter. If the plot is available the summer before shading, it may be interesting to plant a frost-sensitive summer green manure, such as [[buckwheat]] (Fagopyrum esculentum), which can develop quickly and secrete, through its roots, [[Weed management through companion plants|toxins limiting weed development]]. However, care must be taken that this green manure does not go to seed, generating a new weed flora the following year.

==Effectiveness and impact==

===Effectiveness against pests===
It all depends on the '''intensity''', '''depth''' and '''duration''' of high soil temperatures, as well as the sensitivity of each pest species to the treatment. Some pests can be killed in a few days, but 4 to 6 weeks of full sun exposure during summer are needed to ensure control of many others. Although many soil pests are killed by solarization, many beneficial organisms can survive solarization or recolonize the soil very quickly afterward.

====Fungi and bacteria====
Solarization was originally developed to help farmers control '''soilborne diseases'''. Solarization controls many important '''plant fungal''' and '''bacterial''' soilborne pathogens that can cause: [[Verticillium wilt|Verticillium wilt]], [[:Category:Fusariosis|Fusarium wilt]], [[Phytophthora]] root rot, [[:Category:Downy mildew|downy mildew]], damping-off, crown gall, [[Tomato bacterial canker|tomato canker]], potato scab...

Some heat-tolerant fungi and [[bacteria]] are more difficult to control with solarization, such as those causing melon decline and [[charcoal rot]].

====Nematodes====
Soil solarization can be used to reduce nematode populations. However, soil solarization is not always as effective against nematodes as against fungal diseases and weeds because nematodes live deeper, are relatively mobile, and can move within the soil profile to escape heat, quickly recolonizing soil and roots.
{| class="wikitable"
! Organism
! class="texte-centre" |Impact of the technique
! class="texte-centre" |Type
!Details
|-
![[Olpidium brassicae]]
| class="texte-centre" |
| class="texte-centre" |[[pathogen]] ([[pest]])
|Technique applied for lettuce.
|-
![[Fusarium solani]]
| class="texte-centre" |
| class="texte-centre" |[[pathogen (pest)]]
|Technique applied for [[:Category:Zucchini|zucchini]].
|-
![[Nematode (pest)]]
| class="texte-centre" |MEDIUM
| class="texte-centre" |[[pest]], [[predator]] or parasite
|Partial effectiveness
|-
! [[Pythium]]
| class="texte-centre" |
| class="texte-centre" |[[pathogen (pest)]]
|Technique applied for lettuce
|-
![[Rhizoctonia solani]]
| class="texte-centre" |
| class="texte-centre" |pathogen ([[:Category:Pest|pest]])
|Technique applied for lettuce and [[:Category:Melon|melon]].
|-
! [[Sclerotinia]]
| class="texte-centre" |
| class="texte-centre" | [[:Category:Pathogen (pest)|pathogen (pest)]]
|Technique applied for lettuce and melon.
|}

===Effectiveness against weeds===
Some seeds or plant parts of weed species are very sensitive to solarization, others are moderately resistant and require optimal conditions for control, i.e., good soil moisture, well-fitted plastic sheets, and high solar radiation. Solarization generally does not control '''perennial''' weeds as well as '''annual''' weeds because perennial plants often have deeply buried underground vegetative structures such as roots, tubers, corms, and rhizomes, which have more resources and can survive longer. Control of [[yellow nutsedge]], yellow nutsedge, [[field bindweed]] from rhizomes, and some [[clover]] species can be irregular even under favorable conditions.
{| class="wikitable"
|Effectiveness

low
|[[Sorghum halepense|Johnson grass]], [[field bindweed]], [[:Category:Purslane|purslane]], [[field buttercup]], [[clover]].
|-
|Effectiveness

medium
|[[Cynodon dactylon|Bermuda grass]], [[Digitaria sanguinalis|crabgrass]], [[wild oats]], [[Panicum miliaceum|panic grass]], [[:Category:Amaranths|amaranth]], [[Chickweed]] or birds.
|-
|Good

effectiveness
| [[Kentucky bluegrass]], [[Setaria verticillata|green foxtail]], [[Capsella bursa-pastoris|shepherd's purse]], [[Chenopodium album|lamb's quarters]], [[Datura stramonium|jimsonweed]], galinsoga, [[field sowthistle]], [[Lamium purpureum|red dead-nettle]], [[Matricaria|mayweed]], [[Black nightshade]], [[nettle]], oxalis, [[Polygonum aviculare|knotweed]], persicaria, [[ragwort]], [[:Category:Veronicas|speedwell]].
|}

===Impact on soil fertility===

*'''Accelerates degradation of organic matter''' in the soil, often resulting in the additional benefit of releasing soluble [[nutrients]] such as nitrogen (from nitrate and ammonium), [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], [[potassium]], and fulvic acid, making them more available to plants.
*'''Agronomic effectiveness:''' Plants often grow faster, with '''higher yields''' and '''better quality''' when grown after soil solarization. This can be attributed to improved '''disease and weed control''', increased '''nutrient availability''', and higher proportions of beneficial microorganisms.

===Negative impact on auxiliaries===
[[Trichoderma]] (useful saprophytic fungi because they prevent the development of certain [[diseases]] of the roots of [[vegetable crops]]) are preserved, however the following auxiliaries are impacted:

{| class="wikitable"
!Organism
! class="texte-centre" |Impact of the technique
! class="texte-centre" |Type
!Details
|-
![[Spiders]]
| class="texte-centre" | STRONG
| class="texte-centre" |[[Natural enemies of pests]]
|All [[:Category:Auxiliaries|auxiliaries]] that carry out part of their biological cycle in the soil can be impacted by this technique ([[carabids]], [[spiders]], [[rove beetles]]…), as well as some hymenopteran [[pollinators]] that live in the soil such as mason bees.
|-
! [[Predatory and granivorous ground beetles]]
| class="texte-centre" | STRONG
| class="texte-centre" |[[:Category:Natural enemies of pests|Natural enemies of pests]]
|All auxiliaries that carry out part of their biological cycle in the soil can be impacted by this technique (carabids, [[:Category:Spiders|spiders]], [[:Category:Rove beetles|rove beetles]]…), as well as some hymenopteran [[:Category:Pollinators|pollinators]] that live in the soil such as mason bees.
|-
![[Fungi (auxiliary)]]
| class="texte-centre" |STRONG
| class="texte-centre" |Natural enemies of pests
|Antagonistic fungi naturally present in the soil are impacted by the technique (Coniothyrium sp. for example)
|-
! [[Rove beetles]]
| class="texte-centre" |STRONG
| class="texte-centre" |Natural enemies of pests
|All auxiliaries that carry out part of their biological cycle in the soil can be impacted by this technique (carabids, spiders, rove beetles…), as well as some hymenopteran pollinators that live in the soil such as mason bees.
|}

===Economic impact===

*There is a '''labor saving''' (weeding by hand), treatments or mechanization costs ([[mechanical weeding]]).
*'''Working time''': for watering, installing and removing plastics about 5 h/100 m2.
*Necessary investment of about €1600/ha: special PE film for solarization treated with anti-UV/35 µm (0.70 to 0.80 €/m²) = €800/ha; installation about 70 hours/ha = €800/ha.
*The '''[[financing]] of the recycling sector''' set up by [https://www.adivalor.fr/Adivalor/ Adivalor] must also be supported. It is financed by two means: an eco-contribution at source amounting to €240/t of new plastic (2020) for mulching films, and collection fees amounting to €145/t of used agricultural film (UAF) for mulches when the contamination rate is greater than 50% (2020). A bonus is also possible and returned for UAF with a contamination rate below this threshold: €95/t for clear plastics, €50/t for colored plastics (2020).

==Sources==

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00009673_pdf.pdf Alternative weeding in vegetable farming], Chamber of Agriculture of Ain, 2016
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/La_Solarisation?utm_source=TriplePerformance&utm_medium=referral Soil disinfection by solarization in vegetable crops], GECO, 2021
*[https://ecophytopic.fr/sites/default/files/upload-documents-entity-import-csv/Guide%2520CT_FT18_solarisation.pdf Tropical Guide] – Practical guide for designing tropical cropping systems saving phytosanitary products, CIRAD, 2015
*Ref [[organic]] [[vegetable farming]] PACA - [https://www.grab.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/FICHE-solarisation-ref-bio-2009.pdf SOLARIZATION sheet], Catherine Mazollier, 2019
*[https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74145.html Soil Solarization for Gardens & Landscapes Management], Soil Solarization for Gardens & Landscapes Management, 2019
*[https://eorganic.org/node/25440 Solarization and Tarping for Weed Management on Organic Vegetable Farms in the Northeast USA], National Organic Program, 2018
*Practical guide for designing vegetable cropping systems - Technical Sheet 8 solarization: https://www.picleg.fr/publications/etudes-et-dossiers-thematiques/guide-pratique-pour-la-conception-de-systemes-de-culture-legumiers

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00018661_pdf.pdf Overview of alternative techniques: Solarization] - [[January]] C. et al. CTIFL, Technical brochure, 2012.

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00018670_pdf.pdf Alternative techniques: Solarization in vegetable farming] - Izard D. Aprel - Grab, Technical brochure, 2011.

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00018679_pdf.pdf Alternative weeding in vegetable farming - Preventive measures] - Ferrier J-D. [[Chamber of Agriculture]] of Ain, Technical brochure, 2016.

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00012895_pdf.pdf Recycling of solarization films and small tunnels] - ADIVALOR, Technical brochure.

*[https://www.supagro.fr/ress-tice/EcoHort/Uved/PratiqueAgroecologiqueCultureMaraichere/co/solarisation.html Analysis and design of agroecological cropping systems for maintaining sanitary quality in vegetable farming - Solarization] - SUPAGRO, Website
{{Annexes de la pratique}}
{{Pages liées}}
[[fr:Solarisation]]
[[de:Solarisation]]
[[el:Ηλιακή_εξαφάνιση]]
[[es:Solarización]]
[[fi:Solarisointi]]
[[hu:Szolárizáció]]
[[it:Solarizzazione]]
[[nl:Solarisatie]]
[[pl:Solarizacja]]
[[ar:التشبيع الضوئي]]

No-till planting under cover crops

2026-02-18T13:24:22Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
| Nom = No-till seeding under cover crop
| Image = Semis Direct sous Couvert Végétal.jpg
| ImageCaption = Corn sowing directly into living cover crops. Photo credit: Paysan Breton.
| Icone = SDSC.png
| Glyph = SDSC
| Mots-clés = Crop association in arable farming, Permanent cover crops in arable farming, Management of cover crops in arable farming, Carbon cycle and GHG, Climate resilience, Soil cover, Biodiversity, Grazable cover crops, Soil regeneration
}}
[[No-till farming]] under cover crop ([[NTC]]) is an agricultural production technique that combines the absence of soil tillage (no [[plowing]]) with permanent soil cover.

==What is it?==
This technique comes from [[conservation agriculture]] whose founding principles are non-disturbance of the soil, permanent vegetative cover, and diversity of [[crops]] in association and rotation. Particularly developed overseas (Brazil, United States), these techniques have been expanding in Europe and France for about twenty years.

Eliminating soil tillage and maintaining vegetative cover requires very good technical mastery, regular observations, and a certain adaptability from the farmer. Beyond purely technical aspects, no-till seeding under cover crop requires a holistic approach to the [[:Category:Crops|cropping system]] and the farm.

However, there is no miracle recipe and each farmer, depending on the soil-climate context of their farm and the crops they wish to produce and market, must adapt their rotation and [[practices]].
When well mastered and stabilized, this technique aims to achieve good yields, optimal product quality while maintaining soil fertility, control of [[crop diseases]], pests, and [[weeds]].

This technique can be implemented on the crop (cover destroyed in the crop) or at the rotation level (cover maintained for several years).

==The main principles of no-till seeding under cover crop==

*'''Eliminate all deep soil tillage.''' The establishment of cover crops and main crops is done directly using a seeder, most often with discs, which allows placing the seed without working the soil.

*'''Establish and/or maintain a vegetative soil cover in which the main crop(s) will be sown.''' The [[cover crop]] between crops can serve several functions during the season: protecting the soil against [[Soil erosion|erosion]], capturing then releasing mineral elements, limiting evaporation and maintaining soil moisture, limiting the development of [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]], plants targeted by certain pests… The choice of cover crop(s) is therefore essential regarding species, possible mixtures, dates of establishment, destruction, and obviously the costs of seed purchase and implementation.

*'''Manage the cover crops.''' The '''dead cover''' technique is probably the most widespread. It consists of establishing a cover immediately after the crop harvest and destroying it before sowing the next crop. However, in some constraining situations: lack of [[irrigation]] to make covers germinate, presence of stones, impossibility to use chemicals to control the cover,... it is necessary to adapt cover management. Establishing and maintaining the same cover over several successive crops is possible. The cover is established at a favorable time (sufficient rainfall) and intended to remain in place for several years. The successive cash crops on the plot are thus sown in a '''[[No-till seeding under living cover crop|living cover]]''' and carefully managed to allow crop development. Regulating the cover is important so that it develops when there is no crop and does not hinder emergence and growth when the crop is present: competition for water, mineral elements, or simply light and space. For this, various control techniques are possible: mechanical control by mowing, cutting, grazing or rolling (obviously no plowing or [[Shallow soil tillage after harvest|shallow soil tillage]]), chemical control (herbicide), or climatic control: [[frost]] or [[drought]].

[[File:Couvert_vegetal.jpg|border|center|600px|Management of vegetative cover]]

*'''Adapt the sequence of cover crops / cash crops to optimize and benefit from the positive effects of each plant.''' Beneficial effects on fertilization, weed control, pests, and soil moisture can be obtained through judicious choices. Of course, these choices must also consider economic and climatic criteria.

*'''Fertilize at the right time and in the right amount.''' The absence of mechanical tillage and the presence of vegetative cover increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil. Mineralization of [[Soil organic matter|organic matter]] is also slower. Organic or mineral nitrogen fertilization must therefore be adapted (precocious) to both allow the transformation of [[organic matter]] (decomposition of cover crop residues) and fertilization of the crops.

==Points of caution==

*Implementing no-till seeding under cover is not to be taken lightly. It is above all a '''profound change in farm practices''' that can lead to failure if all conditions are not met.

*Many interested parties approach no-till primarily from the angle of simplifying practices, reducing energy and [[:Category:Inputs|input]] consumption, and first think about equipment: which seeder to choose? But a successful transition to no-till is above all a '''change in how one approaches their cropping system and especially putting agronomy, observation, and knowledge of soil and crops back at the center of the farming profession'''.

*From a technical point of view, the [[choice of cover crops]], crop sequences, destruction or control of covers, [[pest management]], and fertilization are the main points of vigilance. However, there are no ready-made recipes and everyone must adapt to their farm conditions. '''What works for some does not necessarily work for others'''.

*Soil response time is also an important parameter. '''The positive effects of transitioning to no-till under cover crop are only observed after a few years (3 to 5 years minimum)'''. Patience and perseverance are therefore necessary. However, the farm must continue to operate and generate income for the farmer. The economic dimension must therefore be considered and anticipated (reflection on current or future [[:Category:Equipment|equipment]] investments).

*If there is one investment not to neglect, it is the '''human investment through training''', exchanges, peer visits, social networks, … It is clear that we are still far from a widespread adoption of these techniques and pioneers have managed on their own driven only by their motivation and conviction that they were on the right path. Currently, the Ministry of Agriculture, through the Agroecological Project, offers new perspectives for technical and financial support of no-till under cover techniques. Research and development organizations increasingly integrate no-till under cover in their work programs and more broadly conservation agriculture. Nevertheless, the pioneer spirit must be maintained and exchanges of experiences, results, or failures between farmers must continue.

==Application of the technique==
Generalizing this technique to all crops, soil types, and climates can sometimes be delicate.

The right association must be chosen to avoid competition with the cash crop and [[pathogen]] transmission.
The cover must be defined and optimized according to soil type ([[hydromorphy]], available water capacity, …).

Be careful if there are water availability issues (limited available water capacity) because the cover can compete with the crop for water availability and thus penalize it.

==Environmental criteria==

*'''Air''': Establishing crops under cover crop reduces energy consumption and related greenhouse gas emissions compared to planting after plowing or conventional no-till techniques. Compared to no-till, seeding under cover also allows carbon storage through cover crop growth.

*'''Water''': The cover takes up mineral elements from the soil solution, limiting their leaching. Moreover, the cover also limits runoff, preventing the transport of [[phosphorus]] or pesticide residues adsorbed on soil particles. However, seeding under cover may involve the use of [[herbicides]] to control or destroy the cover, which can increase the risk of transfer to water.

*'''Fossil energy''': Establishing crops under cover crop reduces energy consumption compared to planting after plowing or conventional no-till techniques. However, the impact on energy consumption is negligible compared to no-till.

*'''[[Biodiversity]]''': Maintaining a "permanent" (or long) soil cover favors macrofauna (game), but also soil biological activity (root activity).

==Agronomic criteria==

*'''[[Productivity]]:''' The cover improves soil fertility (organic matter and biological activity) and limits weed competition. Positive effects depend on the ability to limit competition exerted by the cover on the crop: species choice and cover management (slowing cover growth and/or destruction) and levels of mineral element return (variable depending on species used for the cover).

*'''Soil fertility:''' In quantity, diversity, and availability of elements but visible effects require time.

*'''Water stress:''' Depends on water resources available year-round (climate). The cover can limit water availability for the cash crop.

*'''[[Functional biodiversity]]:''' The cover provides refuge and food for [[beneficial insects]] and [[pollinators]] at a time of year when resources are limited.

*'''Weed pressure:''' The cover can reduce weed competition.

*'''Soil crusting [[surface sealing]]:''' The presence of a cover between crops reduces soil exposure to [[Soil crusting|crusting]] and [[Soil erosion|erosion]] (reduced bare soil duration over the rotation).

==Economic criteria==

*'''Operating costs:''' Establishing crops under cover crop may involve increased use of herbicides to destroy/slow the cover compared to planting after plowing or [[simplified cropping techniques]]. Compared to no-till, the cost of cover crop seed can be considered negligible.

*'''Mechanization costs:''' Compared to planting after plowing or [[Simplified cropping techniques]], seeding under cover crop, like no-till, reduces mechanization costs.

*'''Margin:''' The effect of seeding under cover crop is variable. Compared to planting after plowing or simplified cropping techniques, it reduces mechanization costs but may cause yield reduction and increased herbicide costs. Compared to no-till, the effect on profitability is difficult to estimate.

*'''Fuel consumption:''' Establishing crops under cover crop reduces fuel consumption compared to planting after plowing or conventional no-till techniques. However, the impact on fuel consumption is negligible compared to no-till.

==Social criteria==

*'''Working time:''' Establishing crops under cover crop reduces workload compared to planting after plowing or conventional no-till techniques. However, the impact on workload is negligible compared to no-till.

*'''Observation time:''' Cover management + cash crop management.

==Sources==

This article is largely inspired by the project "No-till seeding under cover crop" of the [[Chambre d'agriculture|Chamber of Agriculture]] PACA.
<ref name="PDF_Semis direct CA PACA">"No-till seeding under cover crop" (https://paca.chambres-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/Provence-Alpes-Cote_d_Azur/020_Inst_Paca/CA04/Documents/Publications/Productions_vegetales/Projet_semis_direct_sous_couvert_CASDAR.pdf)</ref> and from Practicing seeding under cover crop from the GECO database <ref name="Semis direct GECO">Practicing seeding under cover crop (https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Pratiquer_Le_Semis_Sous_Couvert_Vegetal)</ref>

==Videos on the subject==
* [[No-till seeding under permanent cover - GIEE MAGELLAN]]
* [[No-till seeding under permanent cover, by Daniel Brémond]]
* [[No-till seeding under clover cover - Julien SENEZ]]
* [[No-till & triple performing agriculture, with Christian Abadie]]
* [[Innovative cover crops and no-till in sugar beet]]

==Further reading==

*Magellan Guide: No-till seeding. From annual cover... to permanent cover. [https://a8f8f996-9048-4137-99ce-13f063da3466.filesusr.com/ugd/a22602_b6888c7b4c2d4d85ab446367767712d9.pdf]

*Cover crop dossier
*:-Thomas F. TCS no.33, Non-peer-reviewed journal article, 2005 [http://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/pdf_Pratiquer_le_semis_sous_couvert_v_g_tal_1.pdf link to dossier]
*Technical dossier: [[Legumes]] how to use them as [[intermediate crops]]?
*:-Minette S. (CRA Poitou-Charentes) Technical brochure, 2010 [http://www.deux-sevres.chambagri.fr/fileadmin/publication/CA79/16_Entreprise_Agricole/Documents/Secheresse/Dossiertech_IC_2010_legumineuses.pdf dossier]
*Hydraulic conductivity and porosity under conventional and no-tillage and the effect of three species of [[cover crop]] in northern France.
*:-Carof M (AgroCampus) Soil Use and Management, volume 23, pages 230-237, Peer-reviewed journal article, 2007 [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2007.00085.x/abstract abstract]
*Cetiom confirms no-till orientation and association with legumes
*:-Thomas F. ([[TCS]]), Sauzet G. (Cetiom) [[Tcs|TCS]] no.53, Non-peer-reviewed journal article, 2009 [http://agriculture-de-conservation.com/Colza-le-CETIOM-confirme-l.html article]
*Undersowing wheat with different living mulches in a no-till system. I. Yield analysis
*:-Carof M (AgroCampus) Agronomy for Sustainable Development, volume 27, pages 347-356, Peer-reviewed journal article, 2007 [http://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/pdf_Pratiquer_le_semis_sous_couvert_v_g_tal_3.pdf link to article]
*Undersowing wheat with different living mulches in a no-till system. II. Competition for light and nitrogen.
*:-Carof M (AgroCampus) Agronomy for Sustainable Development, volume 27, pages 357-365, Peer-reviewed journal article, 2007 [http://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/pdf_Pratiquer_le_semis_sous_couvert_v_g_tal_4.pdf link to article]

==Keywords==

====Bioaggressor control method====
Cultural control

====Mode of action====
Action on initial stock

====Type of strategy regarding pesticide use====
Redesign

== Annexes ==
{{Pages liées}}
{{Est complémentaire des techniques
|1= Establishing legumes in intercrop}}
{{S'applique aux cultures
|1= Oat
| 2= Diploid oat
| 3= Red beet
| 4= Durum wheat
| 5= Common wheat
| 6= Camelina
| 7= Hemp
| 8= Forage cabbage
| 9= Rapeseed
| 10= Einkorn
| 11= Spelt
| 12= Fenugreek
| 13= Faba bean
| 14= Vetch
| 15= Lentil
| 16= Flax
| 17= Lupin
| 18= Alfalfa
| 19= Silage maize
| 20= Grain maize
| 21= Sweet clover
| 22= Millet
| 23= Miscanthus
| 24= Mohar millet
| 25= Mustard
| 26= Rapeseed (field mustard)
| 27= Niger seed
| 28= Barley
| 29= Poppy
| 30= Phacelia
| 31= Pea
| 32= Chickpea
| 33= Ryegrass
| 34= Rice
| 35= Sainfoin
| 36= Buckwheat
| 37= Rye
| 38= Soybean
| 39= Silage sorghum
| 40= Grain sorghum
| 41= Tobacco
| 42= Sunflower
| 43= Clover
| 44= Triticale
| 45= Vetch}}
{{Défavorise les bioagresseurs
|1= Theophrastus' abutilon
| 2= Yarrow
| 3= Agrostis stolonifera (bentgrass)
| 4= Creeping bentgrass
| 5= Field lady's mantle
| 6= White amaranth
| 7= Blite amaranth
| 8= Prostrate amaranth
| 9= Hybrid amaranth
| 10= Reflective amaranth
| 11= Ragweed
| 12= Tall ammi
| 13= Mayweed
| 14= Field chamomile
| 15= Tall chamomile
| 16= Common chervil
| 17= Thalius' rockcress
| 18= Common mugwort
| 19= Spreading orach
| 20= Clustered oatgrass
| 21= Ludovician sterile oat
| 22= Intermediate barbarée (barbarea)
| 23= Three-lobed bident
| 24= Cornflower
| 25= Sterile brome
| 26= Irregular calepine
| 27= Shepherd's purse
| 28= Hairy bittercress
| 29= Sedge
| 30= Wild carrot
| 31= Clustered ceraiste
| 32= Field ceraiste
| 33= Milk thistle
| 34= White goosefoot
| 35= Wall goosefoot
| 36= Hybrid goosefoot
| 37= Polyspermous goosefoot
| 38= Chickweed (Pied-de-poule)
| 39= Creeping chickweed
| 40= Corn marigold
| 41= Nîmes hawkweed
| 42= Dodder
| 43= Jimsonweed
| 44= Blood fingergrass
| 45= False rocket (Diplotaxis)
| 46= Four-angled willowherb
| 47= Hemlock-leaved stork's-bill
| 48= Poison hemlock
| 49= Dwarf spurge
| 50= Spurges (Euphorbia) "alarm clock"
| 51= Common fennel
| 52= Lesser celandine
| 53= Wild oats
| 54= Small-flowered fumitory
| 55= Common fumitory
| 56= Cleavers
| 57= Cottony galactites
| 58= Round-leaved geranium
| 59= Slender-stemmed geranium
| 60= Dove's-foot crane's-bill
| 61= Cut-leaved geranium
| 62= Soft geranium
| 63= Tuberous vetchling
| 64= Field gromwell
| 65= False vipers bugloss
| 66= Soft brome
| 67= Rigid darnel
| 68= Toad rush
| 69= Field sow-thistle
| 70= Rough sow-thistle
| 71= Curly endive
| 72= Clasping-leaved dead-nettle
| 73= Purple dead-nettle
| 74= Large-fruited lampourde
| 75= Common hawkweed
| 76= Bastard toadflax
| 77= Elatine toadflax
| 78= Lesser toadflax
| 79= Field bindweed
| 80= Hedge bindweed
| 81= Dioecious campion
| 82= Chamomile matricaria
| 83= Scentless chamomile
| 84= Woodland mallow
| 85= Round-leaved mint
| 86= Annual mercury
| 87= Black nightshade
| 88= Field chickweed
| 89= Field mustard
| 90= Black mustard
| 91= Field forget-me-not
| 92= Corncockle
| 93= Branched broomrape
| 94= Dichotomous panicgrass
| 95= Hair panicgrass
| 96= False millet panicgrass
| 97= Cock's-foot panicgrass
| 98= Two-spiked paspalum
| 99= Field shepherd's-purse
| 100= Drave shepherd's-purse
| 101= Annual meadow grass
| 102= Common meadow grass
| 103= Prickly poppy
| 104= Common poppy
| 105= Venus' comb
| 106= Field pansy
| 107= Corn parsley
| 108= Paradoxical phalaris
| 109= Ten-stamened pokeweed
| 110= False hawkweed picris
| 111= Dandelion
| 112= Ribwort plantain
| 113= Greater plantain
| 114= Creeping potentilla
| 115= Purslane
| 116= Giant horsetail
| 117= Horsetails
| 118= Rough charlock
| 119= Charlock
| 120= English ryegrass
| 121= Italian ryegrass
| 122= Field buttercup
| 123= Marsh buttercup
| 124= Creeping buttercup
| 125= Patience-leaved knotweed
| 126= Amphibious knotweed (terrestrial form)
| 127= Bird's knotweed
| 128= Bindweed knotweed
| 129= Persicaria knotweed
| 130= Mignonette
| 131= Blunt-leaved dock
| 132= Curly dock
| 133= Sheep sorrel
| 134= Common ragwort
| 135= Glaucous setaria
| 136= Green setaria
| 137= Whorled setaria
| 138= Field sherardia
| 139= Hedge mustard
| 140= Aleppo sorghum
| 141= Edible chufa
| 142= Venus' looking glass
| 143= Field spurrey
| 144= Intermediate chickweed
| 145= Field thistle
| 146= Tall tordylium
| 147= Field torilis
| 148= Knotted torilis
| 149= Wild sunflower
| 150= Clovers
| 151= Coltsfoot
| 152= Sumatra fleabane
| 153= Ivy-leaved speedwell
| 154= Persian speedwell
| 155= Field speedwell
| 156= Shining speedwell
| 157= Common vervain
| 158= Rat's-tail fescue
| 159= Field foxtail}}

<references />
{{Ajouter au projet|1=Scaling up agroecology}}

{{Ajouter au projet |1= COVER Crop}}
[[fr:Semis direct sous couvert végétal]]
[[de:Direktsaat_unter_Pflanzendecke]]
[[el:Άμεση_σπορά_κάτω_από_φυτικό_κάλυμμα]]
[[es:Siembra_directa_bajo_cobertura_vegetal]]
[[fi:Suora_kylvö_kasvinsuojan_alla]]
[[hu:Közvetlen_vetés_növényi_fedés_alatt]]
[[it:Semina_diretta_sotto_copertura_vegetale]]
[[nl:Directe_zaai_onder_plantenbedekking]]
[[pl:Bezpośredni_siew_pod_ściółką_roślinną]]
[[pt:Semeadura_direta_sob_cobertura_vegetal]]
[[ar:الزراعة_المباشرة_تحت_غطاء_نباتي]]

Arable crop rotation

2026-02-18T13:22:07Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Grande thématique | Mots-clés SEO = Rotation, cereals, oilseeds, legumes, crop rotation, crop succession, agronomy, crop rotation
| Titre = Arable crop rotations
| Image = Tournesol_(Gers)_Cl_9_B_J_Weber_(23716306159).jpg
| Portail parent = Arable crops
| Titre court = Rotations
| Description = How to define your crop rotation calendar, which species to choose...
| Icone = Rotations - Portail.png
| Glyph = Rotations}}

In agriculture, crop rotation refers to the sequence of different [[cultures|crops]] grown on a plot of land over the years, with the sequence repeating itself in regular cycles. In the case of [[grandes cultures|field crops]], it is a very powerful agronomic lever from both a technical and economic point of view. It is also the main tool to be used when converting to organic farming.<ref>Réseau GRAB / FRAB, La rotation en grande culture, 2009. https://www.agrobio-bretagne.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/rotation_GCultures1.pdf</ref>

 

==The main principles==
 

===The components===

*'''Head of rotation ''': The first crop in the rotation is known as the "head of rotation". In most systems, this is often a legume (annual or [[Cultiver des espèces pluriannuelles|multi-annual]]) which will contribute to soil fertility.
*'''Main body of rotation ''': Depending on its longevity and objectives, the main body of the rotation is generally made up of [[:Category:Cultures|crops]] that consume more[[azote|nitrogen]], such as certain [[céréales|cereals]], particularly [[blé|wheat]] and [[maïs|maize]], or [[colza|oilseed rape]].
*'''End of rotation :''' The last crops in a rotation are generally less [[Cultiver des espèces peu exigeantes en azote|nutrient-intensive]], or [[Cultiver des espèces étouffantes|smother]] crops to combat [[adventices|weeds]].

 

===Alternating crops as an agronomic lever===
Within a rotation, there are various agronomic advantages to alternating the cultivation of species with the following characteristics from one year to the next.<ref>[[Chambre d'agriculture]] de l'Isère, Guide technique : concevoir sa rotation, 2017. http://www.deveniragriculteur-npdc.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/National/FAL_commun/publications/Auvergne-Rhone-Alpes/guide_rotation_culturale_juin_2017.pdf</ref> :

*'''Nitrogen-demanding and less nitrogen-demanding crops''', in order to maintain good soil fertility. We can also consider[[Alterner les cultures libérant de l'azote et les cultures valorisant rapidement l'azote disponible|alternating crops that release nitrogen and crops that mobilise it quickly]].
*'''Soil-soiling and soil-cleaning crops,''' so as to reduce the stock of weeds after a soil-soiling crop, and limit the use of chemical or [[mechanical weeding]] between crops, as well as after sowing.
*Alternating'''winter and spring crops''' helps to break the cycle of [[bioagresseurs|bio-aggressors]], particularly certain weeds that are resistant to specific herbicides. Another measure to combat this problem is to[[Associer ou alterner les familles chimiques pour éviter l'apparition de résistances|alternate chemical families]] in treatments.
*'''Crops with different root systems''', to maintain good soil structure via fasciculated and taproot systems.

Generally speaking, [[Cultiver des espèces diversifiées dans la rotation|diversifying rotations]], both at farm and [[Cultiver des espèces et variétés diversifiées à l'échelle du territoire|regional]] level, helps to improve economic resilience and reduce [[:Category:Intrants|inputs]].
 

===Intercropping===
Between the '''harvesting of one crop''' in a rotation and the '''sowing of the next''', it is common to plant an "intercrop" or "'''[[culture intermédiaire|intermediate crop]]'''".

The integration of these crops is also important when '''designing a rotation''', as they can fulfil a number of different objectives: controlling erosion, smothering weeds, trapping certain pests, [[Implanter des légumineuses en interculture|capturing atmospheric nitrogen]], etc.

Some intermediate crops can fulfil several of these functions at the same time, and are therefore known as [[Culture Intermédiaire Multi-Services (CIMS)|multiservice intermediate crops (CIMS )]].

To find out more [[about]] the issues surrounding intercropping, visit the[[Gestion des couverts végétaux en grandes cultures|"Managing plant cover in arable farming]]" [[:Category:Portail|portal]].
 

{{Afficher les stores du portail}}

==References==
<references />
[[fr:Rotations en grandes cultures]]
[[de:Fruchtfolge_in_großen_Feldkulturen]]
[[el:Αμειψισπορές_σε_μεγάλες_καλλιέργειες]]
[[es:Rotaciones_en_cultivos_extensivos]]
[[fi:Kasvulohkojen_kierrot]]
[[hu:Nagyüzemi_gazdálkodásban_végzett_forgatások]]
[[it:Rotazioni_nelle_colture_estensive]]
[[nl:Rotaties_in_grootschalige_gewassen]]
[[pl:Płodozmian_w_uprawach_ekstensywnych]]
[[pt:Rotações_em_culturas_de_grande_escala]]
[[ar:الدورات_في_الزراعات_الكبيرة]]

Reintroduction of plowing to reduce herbicide use in short rotation

2026-02-18T13:21:27Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Exemple de mise en œuvre
| Photo d'illustration = image_R_introduction_du_labour_pour_r_duire_le_recours_aux_herbicides_en_rotation_courte.png
| ImageCaption = Hoeing (Photo credits: JC Lapasse - farmer).
| Programme = DEPHY EXPE System Sheets
| Département = Haute-Garonne (department)
| Adresse = Lagarde, 31590 Verfeil
| Latitude = 43.684281
| Longitude = 1.667869
| Type de production = Crop-livestock farming
| Texture du sol = Clayey
| Cultures = Durum wheat @ Rapeseed @ Ryegrass @ Soybean @ Sunflower
| Mots-clés = Weed control in arable crops
}}
{{Article issu de Geco
| url = https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Reintroduction_Du_Labour_Pour_Reduire_Le_Recours_Aux_Herbicides_En_Rotation_Courte}}

This trial was conducted from 2013 to 2018 on a farmer's plot in Verfeil (60) as part of the [https://ecophytopic.fr/sites/default/files/compil_Fiches_ECOHERBMIP.pdf ECOHERBMIP Arable Crops] project. The project aims to test the feasibility and performance of [[cereal]] - oilseed crop systems reducing dependence on [[herbicides]] by at least 50% in a context of non-irrigated arable [[crops]].

The plot chosen for the trial was selected due to its history of [[wheat]]-[[sunflower]] rotation and no [[ploughing]] for 15 years. On this site, the development of winter grasses ([[ryegrass]], rat's-tail fescue) increasingly difficult to control led the farmer to reconsider the cropping system and the agronomic levers to be mobilized to manage these [[weeds]].

=== Mobilized levers ===
* Reintroduction of [[Distribute ploughing in the rotation|ploughing]];
* [[Perform false seedbeds during the intercrop period|False seedbeds]];
* [[Sow / transplant late|Late sowing]] in wheat and in warmed soil for summer [[:Category:Crops|crops]];
* Mechanical [[weed control]] ([[Practice mechanical weed control in full stand - Spring tine harrow|full stand]] and [[Practice mechanical weed control on inter-row - Hoeing|inter-row]]).

=== Main results and lessons learned ===
After the introduction of ploughing, the weed flora [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]] strongly decreased, allowing management of pressure with the different mobilized agronomic levers (particularly [[mechanical weed control]] on summer crops with wide inter-rows). The results obtained in terms of control of target weeds (ryegrass and fescues) on winter crops are satisfactory.

Thistle is adequately controlled in the rotation by a chemical intervention on cereals.

After the introduction of ploughing, the [[:Category:Objective|objective]] of reducing herbicide [[IFT]] is achieved (-55% on average over 4 years) and weed infestation is on average better controlled than in the reference system.

The economic indicators improved over the two seasons following the introduction of ploughing (yield gain and strong decrease in [[chemical weed control]]). By using mechanical techniques to replace chemical ones, criteria related to working time and fuel consumption are slightly degraded.

➔ MORE INFO IN THE [https://ecophytopic.fr/sites/default/files/Fiche%20SYSTEME_ECOHERBMIP%20Grandes%20Cultures_CA31.pdf CROP SYSTEM EXPE SHEET]

== Annexes ==
{{Pages liées}}
{{Techniques évoquées
|1= Practice mechanical weed control in full stand - Spring tine harrow
| 2= Practice mechanical weed control on inter-row - Hoeing
| 3= Perform false seedbeds during the intercrop period
| 4= Distribute ploughing in the rotation
| 5= Sow / transplant late}}
{{Bioagresseur s évoqués
|1= Thistles
| 2= Rat's-tail fescue
| Tag 2 = Weed control }}

{{#set: Import GECO le = 18/05/2021}}
[[de:Wiedereinführung_des_Pflügens_zur_Verringerung_des_Herbizideinsatzes_bei_kurzer_Fruchtfolge]]
[[fr:Réintroduction_du_labour_pour_réduire_le_recours_aux_herbicides_en_rotation_courte]]
[[de:Wiedereinführung des Pflügens zur Verringerung des Herbizideinsatzes bei kurzer Fruchtfolge]]
[[el:Επαναεισαγωγή_της_όργωσης_για_μείωση_της_χρήσης_ζιζανιοκτόνων_σε_σύντομη_αμειψισπορά]]
[[es:Reintroducción_del_arado_para_reducir_el_uso_de_herbicidas_en_rotación_corta]]
[[fi:Lannanmuokkaus_lyhyessä_kierrätyksessä_herbisidien_käytön_vähentämiseksi]]
[[hu:Agyhántás_újra_bevezetése_a_gyomirtók_használatának_csökkentésére_a_rövid_termesztésváltásban]]
[[it:Reintroduzione_della_lavorazione_del_suolo_per_ridurre_il_ricorso_agli_erbicidi_in_rotazione_breve]]
[[nl:Herintroductie_van_plooien_om_het_gebruik_van_herbiciden_bij_korte_rotatie_te_verminderen]]
[[pl:Ponowne_wprowadzenie_orki_w_celu_ograniczenia_stosowania_herbicydów_w_krótkiej_rotacji]]
[[pt:Reintrodução_do_aranhamento_para_reduzir_o_uso_de_herbicidas_em_rotação_curta]]
[[ar:إعادة_إدخال_الحرث_لتقليل_استخدام_مبيدات_الأعشاب_في_الدورة_القصيرة]]

Reduction of spacing and increase of sowing density to reduce weed pressure

2026-02-18T13:20:46Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Exemple de mise en œuvre
| Titre court =Reducing spacing and increasing seeding density to reduce weed pressure
| Photo d'illustration = Jerome_Sainte_Marie - VignetteMais.jpg
| Nom de l'agriculteur = Jérôme Sainte-Marie
| Programme = Aglae
| Organisme = Chambre d'Agriculture Occitanie
| Département = Hautes-Pyrénées (département)
| Adresse = 65220 Lubret-Saint-Luc
| Latitude = 43.312102
| Longitude = 0.302088
| Problématique = Weed management
| Type de production = Field crops
| SAU = 95 ha
| UTH = 1
| Texture du sol = Loamy
| Description de sol = Loamy soil
| Cultures = Arboriculture
| Autres caractéristiques = ACS @ Irrigated system
| Mois de l'année = April
| Mots-clés = Weed control in field crops, Weed control
}}

Feedback from Jérôme Sainte-Marie, as part of the [[Projet Aglae|Aglae project]]. He explains how he reduced the spacing and increased the seeding density of his [[maize]] crop to combat [[weeds]].

== Motivations ==
When I [[installation]] on the family farm in 2002, I began implementing [[no-till]] for [[cereal]] straw crops, [[soybean]] and [[cover crop|cover crops]] on part of my farm. I realized that the soil quickly became covered and I had few problems with [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]].

At the same time, I was growing [[maize]] with a standard [[planter]] and had more difficulty keeping the fields clean because the maize took time to close the furrow. I thought it would be interesting to narrow the maize rows to be able to space the plants on the furrow. Thus each plant would have more room, develop faster and cover the furrow more quickly.

This modification of the spacing between rows and between plants now serves as a lever to limit weed development in my maize, soybean and [[sorghum]] fields.

{{clear}}

{{youtube|id=https://youtu.be/e-NKjYr7rw8?list=PLixSXAIulsE_yGTgHR-HtYOPiXDGehYxh}}

==Implementation==

{{Image | Image = Jerome_Sainte_Marie - Rotation2.png | Frame=True }}

{{clear}}

==Spacing - density, my method==
{{Image | Image = Jerome_Sainte_Marie - Implantation.png | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Légende = Implantation}}

===Planting===
* '''Between plants:''' 25cm
* '''Between rows:''' 40cm

{{Clear}}

===No-till at 40cm===
{{Image | Image = Jerome_Sainte_Marie - Semoir.jpg | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Légende = Implantation}}

'''Tools:'''
* 1 [[single-grain planter]] (Sola) at 40cm
* double hopper for seeds and a slug control hopper
* corrugated discs at the front
* seed positioning, coulter at the front
* equipped with a front tank that allows placement of liquid fertilizer at the front of the seed row.

'''[[Crops]] concerned:'''
* [[maize]]
* [[soybean]]
* [[sorghum]]
* [[sunflower]]
* [[rapeseed]]

'''Irrigated soybean:'''
The [[:Category:Objective|objective]] is to leave space between plants because, under [[irrigation]] conditions, too high a density leads to poor aeration between plants and can promote the appearance of [[sclerotinia]].

'''Irrigated maize:'''
Planting is done in the living cover of [[fava bean]]/[[phacelia]]. The goal is for the maize to develop as quickly as possible to cover the soil, close the furrow and prevent the development of possible weeds, especially [[Datura stramonium|datura]].

===Seeding density===

'''Before:''' Seeding at 75 cm between rows and 17 cm between plants --> seeding density = 85,000 seeds/ha

'''Today:''' Seeding at 40 cm between rows and 25 cm between plants --> density = 100,000 seeds/ha

===Harvest===

'''Tools:''' standard maize picker

'''Specificity:''' harvesting 2 rows at once

===Yield===

"Maize programs the number of seeds per ear at an early stage of its development. If maize develops quickly when young,
it will increase its seed number programming.
In 2016, I used the variety P9900. Since 2017, I have used a variety more suited to my new no-till seeding technique at
40cm (P9838). This variety allows a rapid start of maize and thus ultimately an increase in yield."

==Benefits and points of caution==

===Benefits===
* Rapid soil coverage
* Limits weed development

===Points of caution===
* Requires specific equipment for [[weed control]] operations
* Reduced forward speed during harvest

== My tips for success ==
* Sow on dry soil
* Pay attention to poorly distributed cover crop residues on the soil. A heterogeneous cover increases the risk of weed development.
* Anticipate variety choices adapted to this density
* For more effectiveness, combine with other levers

==My outlook==
{{Image | Image = Jerome_Sainte_Marie.jpg | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Légende = Jérôme Sainte-Marie}}
* Extend the rotation of my dryland system to 4 years
* Implement [[permanent cover crops]]

{{Techniques évoquées|1=Starter fertilizer application | 2=Urea application | 3=Ammonium sulfate application | 4=Localized chemical weed control}}

==My results==

===Agri-environmental===
* {{smiley|1=positive}} Reduction of herbicide [[IFT]] (0 to 10%)
* {{smiley|1=positive}} Reduction of weed pressure
* {{smiley|1=neutral}} Stability of pest pressure
* {{smiley|1=neutral}} Stability of [[disease]] pressure

===Social===
* {{smiley|1=neutral}} Stability of working time
* {{smiley|1=neutral}} Stability of observation time

===Economic===
* {{smiley|1=positive}} Reduction of mechanization costs
* {{smiley|1=positive}} Increase in net margin
* {{smiley|1=negative }} Increase in implementation cost

==Expert committee opinion==
Evaluation according to the [[ESR analysis grid]].

===Efficiency===
The objective is to increase the efficiency of available control methods through the development of technologies that improve their use or by better positioning. In this context, decision support tools as well as [[precision agriculture]] are positioned.

{{ESR|1=E}}

Farmer member of the [[Dephy|DEPHY]] Farm network, led by the Chamber of Agriculture of Hautes Pyrénées.

{{Image | Image = Ecophyto Dephy.png | Largeur = 150px}} {{Image | Image = Logo_CA_Hautes_Pyrenees.jpg | Largeur = 175px}}

Author of the sheet: Valérie Soulère.

Date of edition: 2019.

== Annexes and links ==
* [[Aglae]] sheet edited by the [[Chambre d'agriculture|Chamber of Agriculture]] [[Occitanie]] https://occitanie.chambre-agriculture.fr/agroenvironnement/agroecologie/aglae/tous-les-temoignages/la-densite-et-lecartement-en-mais-pour-reduire-la-pression-adventices/

{{Materiel concerné|1=Maize picker | 2=Hoe | 3=Planter}}
{{Cultures concernées|1=Soft wheat | 2=Fava bean | 3=Legumes | 4=Maize | 5=Phacelia | 6=Sorghum | 7=Soybean}}
{{Ravageurs concernés|1=Dicotyledons | 2=Digitgrass | 3=Panic grasses | 4=Ryegrass | 5=Ragwort | 6=Setaria}}

[[Category:Projet Aglae - Grandes cultures / Polyculture élevage]]
[[fr:Réduction de l'écartement et augmentation de la densité de semis pour réduire la pression adventice]]
[[es:Reducción del espaciamiento y aumento de la densidad de siembra para reducir la presión de malezas]]
[[it:Riduzione dell'interfila e aumento della densità di semina per ridurre la pressione delle infestanti]]
[[de:Verringerung des Reihenabstands und Erhöhung der Saatdichte zur Verringerung des Unkrautdrucks]]
[[el:Μείωση της απόστασης και αύξηση της πυκνότητας σποράς για τη μείωση της πίεσης των ζιζανίων]]
[[nl:Vermindering van de rijafstand en verhoging van de zaaidichtheid om de onkruiddruk te verminderen]]
[[hu:A sortávolság csökkentése és az vetés sűrűségének növelése a gyomnyomás csökkentésére]]
[[pl:Zmniejszenie rozstawu i zwiększenie gęstości siewu w celu ograniczenia presji chwastów]]
[[fi:Istutustiheyden_vähentäminen_ja_kylvötiheyden_suurentaminen_rikkapainetta_vähentämään]]
[[pt:Redução_do_entrelinha_e_aumento_da_densidade_de_plantio_para_reduzir_a_pressão_de_plantas_daninhas]]
[[ar:تقليل_التباعد_وزيادة_كثافة_الزراعة_لتقليل_ضغط_الأعشاب_الضارة]]

Mechanical Weeding in the Field - Star Hoe

2026-02-18T13:19:35Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Article issu de Geco|url=https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Pratiquer_Le_Desherbage_Mecanique_-_Herse_Etrille}}
{{Pratique
| Nom = Practicing mechanical weeding in the open field - Star harrow
| Latin =
| Sous-categorie =
| Image = image_Pratiquer_le_d_sherbage_m_canique___Herse__trille.jpg
| ImageCaption = Grégoire Agri
| Mots-clés = Weeding in arable crops, Soil regeneration, Weeding
}}
=1. Presentation=

 

==Characterization of the technique==

===Description of the technique:===

====The principle:====
The [[star harrow]] is a mechanical weeding tool used in the open field. It has a mechanical action on [[weeds]] during germination – white filament stage – or at the cotyledon stage, and acts by uprooting or covering the [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]] due to the friction and vibration of the teeth on the soil.
It is used blindly in pre-emergence at 1 or 2 cm above the seedbed as soon as weed emergence is observed or on low-height crops (varies according to [[crops]] so that they can withstand the tool's action).
It is effective on [[annual dicotyledons]] up to stage 2F and grasses up to stage 1F (see page 2 [http://www.agro-transfert-rt.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/La_herse_%C3%A9trille.pdf The star harrow, AgroTransfert]) but ineffective on [[perennials]] and more developed weeds. It is an alternative to the use of pre- and post-emergence herbicides in crops.
It can also be used to destroy false seedbeds and in this case represents an alternative to glyphosate use.

====Conditions for success:====
To succeed in weeding with the [[harrow]] star harrow, the seedbed must be flat, without large clods. Effectiveness is also maximized by dry soil conditions, avoiding heavy crusting ([[surface crusting]]) (the teeth do not penetrate the soil) and heavy soils. It is less effective in the presence of too many crop residues and in wheel tracks and tramlines. The presence of stones slightly reduces the tool's effectiveness, unlike the [[rotary hoe]].
The intervention must be followed by one or two days of dry and sunny weather to ensure desiccation of uprooted plants.
To be effective, it is necessary to intervene on weeds from germination to stage 2-3 F at the latest. In pre-emergence, plan a maximum of two passes, as soon as a peak in weed emergence is observed. In post-emergence, count a maximum of four passes, depending on the number of days available (example: [https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9611-arvarticle.html?region= map for mechanical weeding of wheat in autumn]).
Seeding density should be increased by 10 to 15% to compensate for possible plant losses during harrowing. Also beware of the raking effect of crop residues, which if accumulated in front of the [[:Category:Harrow|star harrow]] teeth may damage the crop.

====Equipment:====
The star harrow is equipped with long teeth (400 to 550 mm) and flexible (6 to 8 mm) mounted on articulated panels to follow the terrain. Its width varies from 6 to 24 m.
The [https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9611-arvarticle.html?region= adjustment of aggressiveness] aims to find the best compromise between weeding effectiveness and risk of plant loss. Aggressiveness is related to:

*'''Tooth inclination''': the more vertical they are, the more aggressive they are towards weeds and [[:Category:Crops|crops]]. This must be considered according to soil condition, crop stage, and weed stage. Curved teeth, more aggressive, are less suitable for very stony soils.
*'''Working speed''': the higher it is, the greater the aggressiveness. In pre-emergence, it is possible to go up to 15 km/h. In post-emergence, speed should be more moderate (4-12 km/h), especially if the crop is young to avoid damage.
*'''Working depth''': by adjusting the position of the gauge wheels, from 1 to 2 cm in pre-emergence passes, 2 to 3 cm in post-emergence. Be careful not to set too deep to avoid promoting weed emergence.

There are harrows ranging from 6 to 24 m wide. A 12 m wide harrow allows a work rate close to that of a sprayer.
Three tooth diameters are offered by manufacturers: 6-7-8 mm. Tooth length can vary between 400 and 550 mm (long teeth used in fragile soils or on delicate crops).

===Details on the technique:===

The star harrow complements other [[mechanical weeding]] techniques ([[Practicing mechanical weeding in the open field - Rotary hoe|rotary hoe]], [[Practicing mechanical weeding on inter-row - Hoeing|hoeing]]) or chemical methods which can be used in addition or as catch-up if intervention is difficult due to weather (example: see page 2 [http://www.agro-transfert-rt.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/La_herse_étrille.pdf The star harrow, AgroTransfert]).
The star harrow can be used post-sowing pre-emergence of crops, while weeds are at the "filament" stage.
Its use is generally discouraged between the emergence and one leaf (or hook) stage of all crops.
Used post-emergence, the star harrow must be used at precise stages depending on the crop:
[[image:b237cf71a5f5c3a0e323fe46a316438f.jpg]] Source: [http://www.ile-de-france.chambagri.fr/pro77/rep-agronomie/agroequipement/files/160822_FicheHerse.pdf Mechanical weeding: the star harrow,] [[Chambre d'agriculture]] Seine-et-Marne
It can also be used on [[oilseed rape]] (from 3 F to 6F / 1 cm ear), [[peas]] (from emergence to 6 F), soybean (from 1F to 4F/tillering), ([[sunflower]] 1F to 3-4F), on [http://agriculture.gouv.fr/sites/minagri/files/documents/pdf/Guide_Leg_FT14_herse_etrille_cle81e16e.pdf vegetable species] or for maintenance of [[grasslands]] (but low penetration: use 8 mm diameter teeth, more aggressive).
For an example of implementation in a "fully mechanical" weeding itinerary on [[maize]], follow the link to the [http://www.ecophytopic.fr/sites/default/files/GCPE_PAYSLOIRE_QUEUNIET_TRAJ_2014.pdf trajectory sheet] [[Dephy|DEPHY]]-Ecophyto. For an example of implementation and its limits in "mechanical + chemical" itineraries, follow the link to the [http://www.ecophytopic.fr/sites/default/files/GCPE_RHONEALPES_FABRE_TRAJ_2014_0.pdf trajectory sheet] [[Dephy|DEPHY]] Ecophyto.
 
 

====Implementation period====
During intercrop
On established crop
 
 
 

====Spatial scale of implementation====
Plot
 
 

==Application of the technique to...==

{{smiley|positive}}

====All crops:====
Easily generalizable
 

Technique adapted to many species, mainly [[arable crops]] and [[open-field vegetable crops]]. However, be careful not to intervene during sensitive crop stages (very young stages).

 
 
{{smiley|neutral}}

====All soil types:====
Generalization sometimes difficult
 

The effectiveness of the star harrow is limited in heavy, clayey or crusting soils and in plots with large amounts of plant residues which it tends to rake. Its use is much more appropriate on light or stony soils (alluvial, white soils, sandy soils, shallow soils).

 
 
{{smiley|positive}}

====All climatic contexts:====
Easily generalizable
 
 

One to two dry days must follow the intervention to ensure weed desiccation.

 
 

==Regulations==

The acquisition of a star harrow for row crops is subject to a [http://www.ecophytopic.fr/tr/cepp/cepp-gc-d%C3%A9sherbage-m%C3%A9canique CEPP sheet (action no. 30: Weeding crops in rows using a mechanical weeding tool)].
 
 

=2. Services provided by the technique=

 
see +

==Weed regulation and management==

The star harrow destroys weeds by mechanical action (uprooting, covering with soil). It has a selective action towards the crop thanks to the differential development between weeds and crop (the latter is better rooted) and because the rows of cultivated plants tend to spread the teeth of the star harrow. The use of a rotary hoe produces fine soil that improves the effectiveness of the star harrow.
Effect level: '''MEDIUM''' if technique used alone, to be combined Confidence index: '''HIGH'''

===COMPLEMENTARY TECHNIQUE(S)===
[[Practicing mechanical weeding on inter-row - Hoeing|Practicing mechanical weeding on inter-row - Hoeing]] [[Practicing mechanical weeding in the open field - Rotary hoe|Practicing mechanical weeding in the open field - Rotary hoe]] [[Performing false seedbeds during intercrop|Performing false seedbeds during intercrop]]

==Physical stability and soil structuring==

The superficial [[soil]] work reduces runoff risk by improving soil aeration and breaks the surface crust that would have formed (formation of a new crust remains possible). The star harrow also improves precipitation infiltration into the soil and reduces capillary rise, limiting evaporation.
Effect level: '''LOW''', if technique used alone, to be combined Confidence index: '''MEDIUM'''

=3. Effects on the sustainability of the cropping system=

 

==Environmental criteria==

{{smiley|negative}}

====Effect on air quality:====
Decreasing
 
pesticide emissions: DECREASE GHG emissions: INCREASE particulate emissions: INCREASE
 
 
{{smiley|positive}}

====Effect on water quality:====
Increasing
 
pesticides: DECREASE
 
 
{{smiley|neutral}}

====Effect on fossil resource consumption:====
Variable
 
fossil energy consumption: VARIABLE [[phosphorus]] consumption: NEUTRAL
 
 
{{smiley|neutral}}

====Other:====
No effect ([[neutral]])
 

As an alternative to [[chemical weeding]], the star harrow reduces the use of [[herbicides]] and thus their transfer to water and air.

'''Fossil energy consumption and GHG emissions: '''[[/geco-front-theme/images/icone/smiley/smileyJaune1.png|lien=|alt=yellow face size 10]] Increasing, if multiple mechanical weeding passes and/or chemical catch-up are needed compared to a herbicide treatment. Required traction is 7 to 10 hp/m of tool width.

 
 
 

==Agronomic criteria==

====Productivity:====
Variable
 

Using a star harrow can cause plant losses of 5 to 15% if the tool is poorly adjusted and depending on crop stage and soil conditions. However, this loss can be compensated by increasing seeding density by 10-15%. Note that [[:Category:Oilseed rape|oilseed rape]] has a strong compensatory capacity and is therefore not sensitive to moderate plant loss. The same applies to winter [[cereals]]. More attention should be paid to plant loss risks for spring [[cereals]], maize, and [[:Category:Sunflower|sunflower]].

 
 

====Product quality:====
Variable
 
If the harrow pass is too late, it may affect [[:Category:Vegetable crops|vegetable crops]] whose leaves are harvested.
 
 
{{smiley|positive}}

====Soil fertility:====
Increasing
 

Mechanical action promotes mineralization of soil [[organic matter]] and organic fertilizers, aeration, and soil warming. It improves placement of phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers. There is a reduction in runoff and erosion risk by increasing soil aeration.

 
 

====Functional biodiversity:====
No knowledge on impact
 
Mechanical tool passes may disturb surface fauna (macro/micro).
 
 
{{smiley|neutral}}

====Other agronomic criteria:====
Variable
 

'''New weed emergence''': The harrow pass, by stirring the soil at a shallow depth, promotes emergence of new weeds. However, these emerge later than the crop which exerts strong competition on them.

 
 
 

==Economic criteria==

 
{{smiley|neutral}}

====Operating costs:====
Variable
 

Impact is low, as increased fuel consumption is offset by reduced herbicide purchases. However, about 10-15% more seed is needed to compensate for plant losses.

Caution is needed in crusting silty soils as the star harrow pass can cause significant plant loss on young [[soybean]] and sunflower (four leaves) if the crust is too dry.

 
 
{{smiley|negative}}

====Mechanization costs:====
Increasing
 

Requires an investment of about €3,500 for a 6 m wide harrow to €7,000 for a 12 m wide harrow.

 
 

====Margin:====
Variable
 

Effect on margin depends on the balance between increased and reduced costs. It is more relevant to compare a strategy using the star harrow (in a mechanical or mixed weeding itinerary) to an all-chemical approach than to evaluate the effect of adopting the harrow in isolation.

Example: on summer crops, 2 passes with star harrow and 1 [[hoeing]] cost between €30 and €40 per hectare versus €51 to €86 per hectare for all chemical (costs depend on working widths and products). The cost of star harrow pass is considered low.

 
 
 

==Social criteria==

 
{{smiley|negative}}

====Working time:====
Increasing
 

Increase due to sometimes delicate adjustment, narrow tool width compared to herbicide treatment, and need for multiple passes, despite a high work rate (for a 9m star harrow: 5-8 ha/h in cereals and 2-4 ha/h on sensitive crops - maize, [[faba bean]], etc.).

 
 
{{smiley|neutral}}

====Peak period:====
Variable
 

The technique requires intervention at a very precise stage, thus very likely during peak periods. Adjustments can be delicate and possible intervention windows may be short or even nonexistent some years.

Available windows for use between sowing and emergence are very limited on maize (see available days maps in the brochure [http://www.itab.asso.fr/downloads/desherb-meca/dm-brochure_culture-web.pdf Mechanical weeding of arable crops, page 57]).

 
 
{{smiley|negative}}

====Observation time:====
Increasing
 

Slight increase as it is important to observe weed development stage, crop stage, and soil drying conditions before passing the star harrow.

 
 
 

=4. For more information=

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00011544_pdf.pdf Mechanical weeding of arable crops]
*:-Hélène Sicard, Laurence Fontaine et al ITAB - CASDAR project "Optimizing and promoting mechanical weeding" 2009-2011, Technical brochure, 2012 The brochure describes the basics of mechanical weeding common to all crops then details, crop by crop, the conditions for use of different mechanical weeding tools, their optimal conditions of use and their integration into mechanical weeding technical itineraries in [[Organic Farming|organic farming]].
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00011553_pdf.pdf Alternative weeding guide for vegetables in Picardie Region. "Integrated Vegetable Production" program]
*:-Chambers of agriculture of Somme, Aisne and Oise. Agro-transfert Resources and Territories Ministry of Agriculture, Technical brochure, 2014
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00011890_pdf.pdf Practical guide for designing vegetable cropping systems saving phytosanitary products. Technical sheet T14.]
*:-Launais M., Bzdrenga L., Estorgues V., Faloya V., Jeannequin B., Lheureux S., Nivet L., Scherrer B., Sinoir N., Szilvasi S., Taussig C., Terrentroy A., Trottin-Caudal Y., Villeneuve F. Ministry in charge of agriculture, French Agency for [[Biodiversity]], GIS PIClég., Book, 2014
*[https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9611-arvarticle.html?region= Star harrow: uproots seedlings, even in stony soils]
*:-[[:Category:Arvalis|ARVALIS]]-Plant Institute, Website, 2018
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00012236_pdf.pdf The star harrow]
*:-Agro-Transfert Resources and Territories, Technical brochure, 2011
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00012245_pdf.pdf The star harrow]
*:-Chapuis S. LPC Bio, Technical brochure, 2013
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ms4y4qba1l8 Star harrow pass on cereals]
*:-[[Structure:Chambre d'agriculture du Cantal|Chamber of Agriculture of Cantal]], Technical brochure, 2016
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1nUsvLsW7_E Presentation, settings and usage windows – Star harrow]
*:-CA17, Multimedia, 2017
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00012272_pdf.pdf Reduction of phytosanitary product use: strategies implemented in the DEPHY FERME network - Arable crop-livestock sector]
*:-I. Félix et al. [[Dephy|DEPHY]] Ecophyto, Technical brochure, 2018 The brochure describes 16 families of phytosanitary product use reduction strategies observed in different production contexts among farmers in DEPHY groups. Strategies 5 ("In [[:Category:Arable crops|arable crop]] systems, choose [[Organic Farming|organic farming]]"), 9 ("In [[crop-livestock]] systems in maize/wheat, progress in mastering crop interventions without disrupting rotation") and 11 ("In livestock farms in western France, systems based on multi-species grazed grasslands for conversion to [[Organic Farming|organic farming]]") illustrate various possibilities for integrating the star harrow into purely mechanical or mechanical+chemical weeding itineraries. They also highlight the tool's usage limits.
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00012281_pdf.pdf How to adjust your star harrow]
*:-[[GAB]] - FRAB, Technical brochure
*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00012618_pdf.pdf Alternative weeding in market gardening - Curative measures]
*:-Ferrier J-D. [[Structure:Chambre d'agriculture de l'Ain|Chamber of Agriculture of Ain]], Technical brochure, 2016 See page 12

=5. Keywords=

 

====Bioaggressor control method:====
Physical control
 

====Mode of action:====
Catch-up
 

====Type of strategy regarding pesticide use:====
Substitution

== Annexes ==
{{Pages liées}}
{{Est complémentaire des techniques
| Practicing mechanical weeding in the open field - Rotary hoe
| Practicing mechanical weeding on inter-row - Hoeing
| Performing false seedbeds during intercrop}}
{{Contribue à
| Weed regulation and management
| Physical stability and soil structuring}}
{{S'applique aux cultures
| Forage crops
| Vegetable crops
| Arable crops
| Grassland}}
{{Défavorise les bioagresseurs
| Annual weeds
| Perennial weeds}}
[[fr:Pratiquer le désherbage mécanique en plein - Herse étrille]]
[[es:Practicar el deshierbe mecánico en campo abierto - Rastra de púas]]
[[it:Praticare lo sarchiamento meccanico in pieno - Erpice a denti]]
[[de:Mechanische Unkrautbekämpfung im Freiland – Egge]]
[[el:Εφαρμογή μηχανικού ζιζανιοκτονίας σε ανοιχτό πεδίο - Δίσκος δονητικός]]
[[nl:Mechanisch wieden in het open veld - Tandeneg]]
[[hu:Mechanikai gyomirtás a szántóföldön – Kapás kultivátor]]
[[pl:Stosowanie mechanicznego odchwaszczania na polu - Grzebień zębaty]]
[[fi:Mekaanisen_rikkaruohojen_poiston_harjoittelu_avomaalla_-_Piikkiharava]]
[[pt:Praticar_a_arraiação_mecânica_em_campo_aberto_-_Grade_de_dentes]]
[[ar:الممارسة_اليدوية_لإزالة_الأعشاب_الضارة_بالآلات_في_الميدان_-_محراث_مكشط]]

Prefer post-emergence herbicides over pre-emergence solutions

2026-02-18T13:18:04Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Practice
| Nom = Prefer post-emergence herbicides over pre-emergence solutions
| Image = Post levée.jpg
| ImageCaption =
| Mots-clés = Weed management, Conserwa
}}
{{Article from Geco
| url = https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Preferer_Les_Herbicides_De_Post-levee_Aux_Solutions_De_Pre-levee}}
Post-emergence [[weed control]] strategies allow selecting commercial products whose spectrum of efficacy matches the present weed flora. They thus maximize treatment effectiveness. Moreover, they can enable dose adjustments, or even skips, depending on the observed [[weeds]] pressure.

'''Example of implementation: '''

"Weed management of [[maize]] 'all post' in one pass (only on plots with low [[:Category:Weeds|weed]] pressure) or 2 passes.

'''Implementation period ''' On established crop

'''Spatial scale of implementation ''' Plot

== Application of the technique to... ==
{{smiley|neutral}} '''All [[crops]]: ''' Sometimes difficult to generalize

The adoption of post-emergence weed control strategies can only apply to [[:Category:Crops|crops]] for which solutions are approved for this use (for [[sunflower]] for example, the choice of a post-emergence strategy can only apply to herbicide-tolerant varieties). For some crops, a pre-emergence intervention is often necessary (e.g. [[oilseed rape]]), or can only be avoided in plots with low weed pressure ([[pea]], [[faba bean]]). This technique is mainly of interest for maize and [[cereals]] with straw.

{{smiley|neutral}} '''All soil types: ''' Sometimes difficult to generalize

On clayey soils, which favor staggered weed emergence, post-emergence strategies may have limitations due to reduced persistence of treatment action.

{{smiley|positive}} '''All [[climatic contexts]]: ''' Easily generalizable

Post-emergence treatment efficacy is less dependent on climatic conditions than pre-emergence treatments.

== Regulation ==

----

= 2. Services provided by the technique =
----

= 3. Effects on the sustainability of the cropping system =

== "Environmental" criteria ==
{{smiley|neutral}} '''Effect on air quality: ''' Variable

phytosanitary emissions: VARIABLE

{{smiley|positive}} '''Effect on water quality: ''' Increasing

pesticides: DECREASE

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Other: ''' No effect ([[neutral]])

Pollutant transfer to water (N, P, phyto ...): Decrease

Adopting post-emergence weed control strategies allows adapting the choice of commercial products and dose to weed pressure. It can thus lead to reductions in herbicide use. Moreover, it can limit the risk of transfer to water compared to a pre-emergence application on bare soil.

Pollutant transfer to air (N, P, phyto ...): variable

Compared to the use of incorporated pre-emergence herbicides, the use of post-emergence herbicides may increase the risk of phytosanitary product transfer to air. This risk depends on the physicochemical properties of active substances, but also on application conditions.

Fossil energy consumption: no effect (neutral)

GHG emissions: no effect (neutral)

== "Agronomic" criteria ==
{{smiley|neutral}} '''[[Productivity]]: ''' No effect (neutral)

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Soil fertility: ''' No effect (neutral)

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Water stress: ''' No effect (neutral)

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Functional [[Biodiversity]]: ''' No effect (neutral)

== "Economic" criteria ==

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Operational costs: ''' Variable

The impact of choosing post-emergence or pre-emergence weed control strategies on herbicide costs depends (i) on the unit cost of commercial products and (ii) on the dose used. When adopting a post-emergence strategy leads to reduced doses or skips, it allows a [[cost reduction]].

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Mechanization costs: ''' No effect (neutral)

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Margin: ''' No effect (neutral)

== "Social" criteria ==

{{smiley|neutral}} '''Working time: ''' No effect (neutral)

{{smiley|negative}} '''Observation time: ''' Increasing

Successful post-emergence weed control requires intervention on young weeds, which necessitates regular plot observation.

----

= 4. Organisms favored or disadvantaged =

== Favored [[Bioagressors]] ==
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|}

== Disadvantaged Bioagressors ==
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|-
|[[Weeds | weeds]]
| class="text-center" |
| class="text-center" | weeds
|Effectiveness depends on the efficacy of authorized products on different species.
|}

== Favored [[Auxiliaries]] ==
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|}

== Disadvantaged [[:Category:Auxiliaries|Auxiliaries]] ==
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|}

== Favored climatic and physiological accidents ==
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
!Details
|}

== Disadvantaged climatic and physiological accidents ==
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
!Details
|}

----

= 5. To learn more =
*Weed management of maize - Practical guide for farmers
*:-CRA [[Pays de la Loire]] - [[:Category:Arvalis|Arvalis]]

Technical brochure

----

= 6. Keywords =
'''Bioagressor control method: ''' Chemical control

'''Mode of action: ''' Catch-up

'''Type of pesticide use strategy: ''' Efficiency

{|
|Julien Halska
|INRA
|julien.halska(at)grignon.inra.fr
|Epoisses (21)
|-
|Rémy Ballot
|INRA
|remy.ballot(at)grignon.inra.fr
|Grignon (78)
|}

== Annexes ==
{{Linked pages}}
{{Disfavors bioagressors
| Weeds}}
{{#set: Import GECO on = 01/02/2021}}
[[fr:Préférer les herbicides de post-levée aux solutions de pré-levée]]
[[es:Preferir los herbicidas de post-emergencia a las soluciones de pre-emergencia]]
[[it:Preferire gli erbicidi post-emergenza alle soluzioni pre-emergenza]]
[[de:Vorzug von Nachauflaufherbiziden gegenüber Vorauflauflösungen]]
[[el:Προτιμήστε τα ζιζανιοκτόνα μετά την εμφάνιση των φυτών αντί των λύσεων πριν την εμφάνιση των φυτών]]
[[nl:Post-emergente herbiciden verkiezen boven pre-emergente oplossingen]]
[[hu:Előnyben részesíteni az utókelés utáni gyomirtókat az előkelés előtti megoldásokkal szemben]]
[[pl:Woleć herbicydy powschodowe od rozwiązań przedschodowych]]
[[fi:Post-esiintymisen_herbisidien_suosiminen_esiintymistä_edeltävien_ratkaisujen_sijaan]]
[[pt:Preferir_os_herbicidas_de_pós-emergência_às_soluções_de_pré-emergência]]
[[ar:تفضيل_مبيدات_الأعشاب_بعد_الإنبات_على_الحلول_قبل_الإنبات]]

Companion plants to control weeds

2026-02-18T13:17:16Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
| Type de production = Field crops
| Objectif = Weed control by cultural control @weeds
| Image = Allélopathie.jpg
| ImageCaption = Source: Saint GERMAIN A., 2021, Allelopathy: a chemical communication between plants, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
| Mots-clés = Allelopathy
}}
The [[Companion plants|companion plant]] serves as soil cover during the cropping period, which prevents the emergence of weeds. This practice benefits by limiting the use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers.

==Principle==
The companion plant, which is a '''cover crop''', is grown in between commercial crops, it is '''not harvested''' to maximize its effects. [[Cover crops]] contribute to weed control by '''limiting the germination and development of weeds''', either through their aggressive competition for light, water, and [[nutrients]], or by emitting molecules toxic to other plants ([[Buckwheat allelopathy|allelopathy]]).

===Competition===
Cover crops, dead (mulch) or living, exert a '''pressure on weed development''' when they dominate. They compete with weeds for light, nutrients, and water, creating a '''smothering effect''', but they can also compete with the crop. To benefit from this effect on weeds, well-established [[Sowing a cover crop|cover crops]] with rapid growth and high biomass are needed. The cover crop species must therefore be [[Permanent cover crops in field crops#How%20to%20choose%20a%20permanent%20cover%20crop%20%3F|carefully chosen]] and [[Successfully managing a cover crop|managed]] to outcompete weeds while limiting competition with the crop and yield loss.

===Allelopathic effects===
{{youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APDdxeRZhLM&t=282s}}<ref>Source: Saint GERMAIN A., 2021. [[Allelopathy]]: a [[chemical]] communication between plants. AFBV webinar, May 26, 2021.</ref>
Some plants have [[Implementing intermediate crops with allelopathic or biocidal effect - biofumigation|allelopathic effects]], meaning they can release organic substances (phenolic compounds, nitrogenous compounds, terpenoids, terpenes…), which manifest as '''inhibition or stimulation of growth of nearby plants''', or harm [[pests]] and diseases. These effects can be '''[[:Category:Directs|direct]]''' or '''indirect''':

*True allelopathy: release of allelopathic compounds '''directly active.'''
*Functional allelopathy: release of compounds becoming '''active after transformation by a microorganism.'''
The release of these molecules can occur:

*'''At the root level''': rhizodeposition.
*'''In the atmosphere''' via emission of volatile compounds and leachates from aerial parts of the plant.
*'''By decomposition''' of buried or fallen plant debris at the soil surface.

The synthesis of these compounds is '''influenced''' by '''genetics''', '''[[:Category:Environmental factors|environmental factors]]''', the '''stage and processes of the plant'''. They '''never act alone''' as they are associated with competition for resources. '''Differences in allelopathic potential''' exist between varieties of the same species, so it is necessary to select the variety to plant based on the highest levels of secondary metabolites. Currently, few allelopathic varieties exist because this trait, which impacts yield, has probably been counter-selected in breeding. Indeed, there is a '''significant energy cost for the plant''' to produce these allelopathic compounds.

Among the [[:Category:Crops|crops]] that can be used for their allelopathy are mainly [[rye]], but also tall [[fescue]], [[wheat]], [[Kentucky bluegrass]], [[:Category:Sorghum|sorghum]], forage [[radish]] and [[buckwheat]].

Some allelopathic substances are specific to a group or plant family:

*'''Crucifers''' (glucosinolates: root exudates) can inhibit the growth of '''[[legumes]]'''. They reduce growth of foxgloves, [[:Category:Amaranths|amaranths]], [[Rumex pluriannuals|rumex]], and [[vine]].
*Most '''cereals''' by hydroxamic acids like DIBOA (present in root exudates) inhibit the development of '''[[annual dicotyledons]]'''.
*'''Invasive plants''': The success of invasive plants is often linked to the release by roots of phytotoxic compounds to neighboring plants.

===Effects on weeds<ref name=":0">(source: [https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Implanter_Des_Cultures_Allelopathiques_En_Grandes_Cultures GECO])</ref>===

*[[Rye]] and [[oat]] help control '''spring weeds'''.
*Rye: on [[Chenopodium album|white goosefoot]], solanaceous plants, [[Plantains|plantain]], [[Cleavers|cleavers]], [[Panicum|panic]], [[Rumex pluriannuals|rumex]].
*Oat: on germination of broomrape (in the inter-row of a legume); reducing effect on [[Thistles|thistle]], [[:Category:Chenopods|chenopods]], [[Wild oat|wild oat]], [[Rumex pluriannuals|rumex]] and on '''dicotyledons''' in general.
*Strigose oat and buckwheat emit coumarin via their roots which '''inhibits root growth of weeds'''.
*Buckwheat would contribute to amaranth suppression via its root exudates, and quackgrass growth thanks to rutin accumulating in the soil. See detailed article: [[Buckwheat allelopathy]].
*[[Sorghum]] (sorgoleone and cyanogenic glycosides): inhibits '''germination and growth of crabgrass''', on '''solanaceous plants''', [[:Category:Amaranths|amaranths]], [[Common ragweed|ragweed]], [[Panicum|panic]], [[Abutilon]], [[Panicum pied-de-coq|cock's-foot panic]], and in the maize inter-row can help control nutsedge.
*[[Soft wheat]] would have an [[allelopathic effect]] on ''Ipomoea lacunosa'', Indian goosegrass, and Palmer amaranth.
*[[Fenugreek]] (like oat) sown in legume seed intercrops (fava beans, [[peas]]) reduces, by exuding allelopathic molecules, the germination of broomrape ''crenata''.
*'''Spanish clover''' (''Desmodium uncinatum'') in the maize inter-row can be effective against ''Striga hermonthica''.
*[[:Category:Alfalfa|Alfalfa]] (saponins): on thistle, [[chenopods]], wild oat, rumex, and dicotyledons in general.
*[[Soybean]] helps limit weeds in maize.
* White [[mustard]], [[:Category:Radish|forage radish]] and spring vetch would suppress [[Chenopodium album|white goosefoot]], [[Matricaria chamomilla|scentless chamomile]], [[Stellaria media|chickweed]] and have a '''more marked effect when mixed'''.
*Roots of [[sunflower]] emit compounds that inhibit weed germination within several centimeters radius and some cultivars have demonstrated effectiveness against weed problems in subsequent wheat crops.

===Effects on pests<ref name=":0" />===

*Black nightshade, via its root exudates, stimulates hatching of '''[[cyst nematodes]]''' '''of potatoes''' but does not allow them to complete their cycle.
*White [[:Category:Mustard|mustard]] and forage [[radish]] have '''nematicidal effects''' via their root exudates on the [[nematode]] cyst of [[beet]].

===Effects on diseases<ref name=":0" />===

*'''Brassicaceae''' (glucosinolates): affect a soil-borne pathogenic fungus, ''[[Aphanomyces]] euteiches'', responsible for '''root rot''' of [[:Category:Pea|peas]].
*Brown mustard, white mustard, and forage radish act on [[Crown rust on oats|crown rust]] of '''cereals'''.
*Varieties of brown mustard or radish rich in glucosinolates allow, through [[Implementing intermediate crops with allelopathic or biocidal effect - biofumigation|biofumigation]], to sanitize the soil and reduce pressure of ''[[Rhizoctonia]] solani'' causing [[Rhizoctonia brown rot on beet|brown rot in beet crops]], [[Rhizoctonia brown rot on potato|and on potatoes]] or maize.
*Brown mustard, by [[biofumigation]], reduces abundance and incidence of the pathogen ''Ralstonia solanacearum'' on '''solanaceous plants''' like [[tobacco]].
*Mixtures of white and brown [[mustards]] would suppress ''[[Verticillium dahliae]]'', vectors of verticillium wilt of [[potato]].

==Companion plants by family==
{| class="wikitable table-striped table-sm table-responsive small"
!Family
!Names
!Root and aerial system
!Seeding density/ha pure crop
!Seed cost €/ha
!Planting cost €/ha

(seeds +

mechanization*)
!Weed smothering
!Drought sensitivity
!Slug sensitivity
!Soil and atmospheric N [[Trapping]]
!Frost sensitivity
!Glyphosate or herbicide sensitivity
|[[Destroying a cover crop|Difficulty of destruction]]
|-
! rowspan="5" |Grasses
|[[Rough oat]]
|Fibrous / erect
|35/50 kg
|50
|100
|medium, allelopathy
|low sensitivity
|low
|medium +
|medium
|high
|Medium
|-
|[[Byzantine oat|Spring oat]]
|Fibrous / erect
|70/100 kg
|18
|77
|medium, allelopathy
|low sensitivity
|very sensitive
|medium
|medium
|high
|Medium
|-
|[[Moha]]
|Fibrous
|25 / 30 kg
|18
|96
|high
|low sensitivity
|sensitive
| low
|very frost sensitive
|high
|Low
|-
|[[Winter rye|Winter rye]]
|Fibrous / erect
|80 kg
|18
|106
|medium, allelopathy
|good
|very sensitive
|high
|low frost sensitivity
|high
|Difficult
|-
|[[:Category:Sorghum|Sorghum]]
|Fibrous / erect
|15 / 25 kg
|50
|100
|high, allelopathy
|resistant
|medium
|high
|very frost sensitive
|high
| Low

Allelopathy (sorgoleone)
|-
! rowspan="14" |Legumes
|[[Spring fava bean]]
|Taproot / erect
|180 kg
|48
|86
|low
|sensitive
|low
|high
|medium
|low
|Medium
|-
|[[Vetch]]
|Fibrous,taproot / creeping
|35/60 kg
|70
|110
|excellent
|low sensitivity
|medium
|high
|frost sensitive
|good
|Medium
|-
|[[Forage lentil]]
|taproot
|30 kg
|60
|121
|excellent
|low sensitivity
| low
|low / medium
|medium
|low
|Medium
|-
|[[Bird's-foot trefoil]]
|semi-erect and semi-creeping
|10 / 15 Kg
|70
|190
|low
|low sensitivity
|medium
|high
|non frost sensitive
|medium
|Difficult
|-
|[[:Category:Alfalfa|Alfalfa]]
|taproot / erect
|20 / 25 kg
|45
|74
|Allelopathy

medium
|low sensitivity
|medium
|high
|very low frost sensitivity
|low
|Medium
|-
|[[Sweet clover]]
|taproot, very vigorous
|10 / 15 Kg
|120
| /
|allelopathy
|low sensitivity
|no data
|high
|non frost sensitive
|/
|Medium / low
|-
|[[Forage pea]]
| Fibrous,taproot / creeping
|60/80 kg
|85
|110
|medium
|medium
|medium
|medium
|sensitive
|low
|Medium
|-
|[[White clover|White clover dwarf]]
|superficial
|6/10 kg
|18
|81
|good
|very sensitive
|sensitive
|high
|very low frost sensitivity
|low
|Medium
|-
|Alexandrian clover
|fibrous/taproot
|10/15 kg
|48
|140
|low
|sensitive
|very sensitive
|high
|medium
|low
|Easy
|-
|[[Crimson clover]]
|fibrous, taproot / erect
|12/15 kg
|48
|140
|medium
|medium
|medium
|high
|low frost sensitivity
|low
| Difficult
|-
|[[Purple clover]]
|Fibrous,taproot / erect
|15 / 20 kg
|18
|81
|excellent
|sensitive
|sensitive
|high
|very low frost sensitivity
|medium
|Difficult
|-
|Common vetch
|Superficial / creeping
|45 kg
|70
|146
|excellent
|very sensitive
|sensitive
|very high
|low frost sensitivity

|low
|Difficult
|-
|Purple vetch
|Superficial / creeping
|45 kg
|70
|146
|excellent
|good
|low
| high
|low frost sensitivity
|good
|Medium
|-
|Hairy vetch
| colspan="11" |More resistant than common vetch; Seeds can germinate over several years; very cold resistant; [[mechanical]] destruction difficult.
|-
! rowspan="6" | Crucifers (not before [[rapeseed]])
|[[Camelina]]
|taproot / erect
|3/5 kg
|18
|61
|excellent, allelopathy
|low sensitivity
|medium
|low
|low frost sensitivity
|low
|Easy
|-
|White mustard
| taproot / erect
|8 / 10 kg
|17
|61
|allelopathy
|sensitive
|medium
|high
|medium
|medium
|Easy
|-
|Brown mustard
| taproot / erect
|3 / 4 kg
|17
|61
|allelopathy
|sensitive
|medium
|high
|medium
|medium
|Easy
|-
|Abyssinian mustard
|taproot / erect
|6 kg
|30
|70
|allelopathy
|sensitive
|medium
|high
|low frost sensitivity
| good
|Difficult
|-
|Forage rape
|taproot
|6/10 kg
|18
|67
|excellent
|low/ good
|sensitive
|high
|low frost sensitivity
|low
|Difficult
|-
|[[Chinese radish]]
|taproot, / erect
|5 / 8 kg
|33
|81
|Allelopathy

excellent
|Resistant
|sensitive
|high
|sensitive
|low
|Easy
|-
! rowspan="2" |Asteraceae (excellent before [[:Category:Rapeseed|rapeseed]])
|[[Nyjer]]
|taproot / erect < 2 meters
|8/12 kg
|18
|96
|low
|good
|very sensitive
|low / medium
|very frost sensitive
|medium
|Easy
|-
|[[Sunflower]]
|fibrous,taproot / erect
|20 / 25 kg
|18
|96
|low
|good
|very sensitive
|strong if sown early
|very frost sensitive
|medium
|Easy
|-
!Hydrophilaceous
| [[Phacelia]]
|Fibrous / erect
|6/10 kg
| 48
|150
|excellent if sown early August
|medium
|medium
|medium if sown early August
|low frost sensitivity
|medium
|Easy
|-
!Papilionaceous
|[[Fenugreek]]
|taproot / erect
|10 / 15 kg
|70
|121
|low
|medium
|medium
|high
|low frost sensitivity
|low
|Medium
|-
!Polygonaceae
|[[Buckwheat]]
|superficial
|45 / 55 kg
|70
|131
|medium, allelopathy

|medium
|sensitive
|high if sown early
|very frost sensitive
|low
|Easy
|-
!Linaceae
|[[Flax]]
|taproot / erect
|20 / 30 kg
|18
|131
|low
|medium
|low
|low
|medium
|high
|Easy
|}

===Crucifers / Brassicaceae===
Mustard, [[Camelina]], Radish, [[Forage rape]].

====Advantages====
*They have a '''good germination capacity''' even in dry conditions.
*They show good '''initial vigor.'''
*They ensure '''biomass production''' over a short duration.
*They have a good '''effect on soil structure.'''

====Disadvantages / limits====
*'''Pay attention to seeding density'''. To prevent them from taking all available space, sow at most 15 to 20 seeds/m² or about 1.5 kg/ha.
*At these early sowing dates, watch for '''flea beetle pressure''' early in the cycle especially [[Sowing rapeseed with companion plants|in rapeseed systems]].

====Examples====
*[[Camelina]]:
**Good '''smothering''' effect on weeds.
**Rapid seed set - '''nectar source'''.
*Mustard:
**'''Returns nitrogen''' over several years.
**'''Keeps soil moist''' in spring.
*[[Forage rape]]:
**'''Rarely flowers before winter.'''
*Forage radish (mid-July sowing):
**'''Allelopathic''' effects.
**Good '''biomass''' production.
**Often '''difficult to destroy'''.

===Grasses / Poaceae===
[[Oat]], [[rye]], [[triticale]], [[moha]], [[:Category:Sorghum|sorghum]], [[ryegrass]].

====Advantages====

*Good '''structuring effect'''.
*High '''biomass production''' (limits weeds + high carbon/sugar content, stimulating microbial activity).
*The most suitable grasses are Brazilian oat, forage moha, and [[:Category:Sorghum|sorghum]].

====Disadvantages / limits====

* Not all grasses are '''adapted to early sowing.'''

===Other families===

==== Examples====

*[[Diploid oat|Brazilian oat]] (sowing August to November):
**Presence of '''allelopathic''' effects that help reduce weed presence.
**Significant '''nematicidal''' effect (especially in [[no-till]] conditions).
**Good '''structuring effect'''.
**High '''biomass''' production.
**Better '''initial vigor''' than [[black oat]] or white oat, especially in dry conditions.
** '''Beware of nitrogen hunger''' after developed Brazilian oats.
*[[Moha]]:
** '''Cleaning''' and '''smothering''' crop against weeds.
**Very good resistance to '''heat''' and '''drought'''.
** Good '''structuring effect''' (less than sorghum).
**High '''biomass''' production and '''rapid seed set''' (sow early July).
** Good [[Destroying a cover crop|destruction by frost]].
** High attractiveness to slugs.
**High '''nitrogen demand'''.
*[[Triticale]] (October sowing):
**Low disease sensitivity (except [[rust]]).
**'''Smothering''' species against weeds.
**Very good performance after straw.
**Interest in forage associations.
**Interest in associations with '''legumes''' (forage pea, [[fava bean]], vetch).
**Increased density to compensate for average development speed.
*[[Rye]], [[spelt]] (October sowing):
** '''Smothering''' species against weeds.
**'''Low requirements'''.
**'''Allelopathic''' effects.
**Increased density to compensate for average development speed.
**High attractiveness to '''slugs'''.
*Forage sorghum (sowing May to July):
**Very good '''biomass''' production.
**Good resistance to '''heat''' and '''drought'''.
**Good '''structuring effect'''.
**'''Allelopathic''' effects.
** Good destruction by [[:Category:Frost|frost]].
**Medium attractiveness to slugs.
**Poor soil cover.

===Legumes / Fabaceae===
[[Fava bean in cover crop - feedback (Jean-Michel Bardou - Aglae)|Fava bean]], [[Forage pea|pea]], [[vetch]], [[clover]], [[vetch]], [[fenugreek]], [[:Category:Lentil|lentil]], [[:Category:Alfalfa|alfalfa]].

====Advantages====

*They provide '''nitrogen to the soil.'''
*They stimulate '''microbial activity'''.
*They do well in associations.
*They have '''varied root systems''' which is interesting to combine.
*[[Associating rapeseed with frost-sensitive service plants|Good association with rapeseed]] because legumes establish more slowly than rapeseed (rapeseed is sensitive to competition until stage 4F).

====Disadvantages / limits====

*'''Demanding for sowing quality''' (good seedbed preparation) and require moisture for good germination.
*The large amount of nitrogen released by their residues after cover crop destruction '''stimulates weed emergence''', especially when legumes are used as [[green manure]].

====Examples====

*[[Fenugreek]] :
**Good "companion" plant for oilseed rape.
**'''Rapid emergence'''.
**The curry smell '''disturbs pest insects''' but attracts hares and deer.
*[[Faba bean|Spring faba bean]] :
** A staple of summer cover crops: a '''true nitrogen factory.'''
**Due to the [[size]] of its seed, the plant requires '''moisture to germinate'''. Sowing depth: 2-3 cm.
** Very good when associated with oilseed rape and winter cereals (Diana variety, 90 kg/ha).
**'''Resistant to Aphanomyces'''.
*[[Vetch]] :
**Good production of '''biomass''' and '''high nitrogen production'''.
**'''Toxic''' to animals.
**Very good "companion" plant for oilseed rape.
**'''Low attractiveness to slugs'''.
**Adapted to '''calcareous clay soil'''.
**'''Seed cost''' among the highest.
*[[Bird's-foot trefoil]] :
**The cover crop '''least sensitive to [[herbicides]]'''.
*[[:Category:Alfalfa|Alfalfa]] :
**Successive mowings allow to '''clean the plots''' (including [[perennials]]). Be careful to control it well in spring.
**'''No sensitivity to diseases.'''
**Good performance in '''drying''' conditions.
**Can be associated with a grass for a balanced [[fodder]].
**Its deep rooting '''limits competition with crops''' (even ensures water rise by capillarity along its root).
**'''Limited outlets'''.
**Grows poorly in '''acid soils'''; inoculum at sowing mandatory if pH<6.5.
**'''Delicate harvest'''.
**Also, when establishing the following crop, care must be taken to limit the biomass of [[alfalfa]] to prevent it from sheltering '''voles'''.
*[[Sweet clover]] :
**'''Repellent''' for voles and field mice, very aggressive in the 2nd year.
*Forage pea :
**Good '''smothering effect''' on weeds.
**Good growth even in '''dry conditions'''.
**Good association with triticale.
**'''Rapid start'''.
**If destruction with tines: '''opening discs'''.
**Density to be adapted for the risk of [[lodging]].
*Alexandrian clover
**Good '''initial vigor'''.
**Spreading habit: '''possible mineralization''' after destruction.
**Quite '''sensitive to herbicides'''.
**Very good cover between two straw crops.
**Medium to high attractiveness to slugs.
*[[White clover]] dwarf:
**Needs to be "calmed" in spring, '''can become a weed'''.
**'''Difficult to destroy'''.
*[[Crimson clover]] :
** Slow establishment in autumn, to be destroyed early (dries the soil).
**Mobilizes a lot of nitrogen in spring and releases it late.
*[[Purple clover]] (Sowing in July or under a cereal cover (April))
**Nitrogen fixation.
**Successive mowings allow to '''clean the plots''' (including perennials).
**No sensitivity to diseases.
**Species '''smothering''' to weeds.
**Limited outlets for livestock feed.
**Sensitive to '''drought''' and '''heat'''.
*[[Vetch]] :
** Strong '''competition''' against weeds.
**Moderately '''sensitive to herbicides'''.
**Good association with rye, [[Spelt|spelt]], triticale and oats.
**Strong '''frost resistance'''.
**Very favorable to '''biological activity'''.
**'''Little sensitive to frost''' (to be reserved for situations with significant winter frost).

==== Examples====

*[[Flax]] :
** Good '''structuring effect''' on the topsoil.
**Interesting effect '''against insects''' (flea beetles).
**To be destroyed before lignification.
*[[Pearl millet]] (sowing June to mid-August) :
**'''Low water requirement'''.
**'''Quickly covers''' the soil.
*[[Nyjer]] (Sowing July-August) :
**The earlier the sowing, the better the weed inhibition.
** Good '''destruction by frost'''.
**Good association with oilseed rape.
**Dislikes '''calcareous''' soils.
**Sensitivity to '''slugs'''.
**Beware of the risk of [[sclerotinia]].
*[[Phacelia]] :
**Requires '''careful sowing'''.
**Produces a '''crumbly soil'''.
**Rapid seed set, '''honey plant''': '''attracts [[aphids]] and [[thrips]]'''.
**Poorly adapted to '''dry autumns'''.
**'''Difficult to manage chemically'''.
**Mowing planned in September/October.
*[[Buckwheat]] :
**Good vigor in '''dry conditions'''.
**Provides flowers in autumn and '''beneficial insect effect'''.
**To avoid before maize: improves '''phosphorus availability'''.
**Typical companion plant dose: 2kg/ha.
**'''Low attractiveness''' to slugs.
**Beware, at high density, competition with the crop is strong with a significant slowdown in oilseed rape growth.

==Economic impact==

*'''Planting cost''' : on average ([[Weed management with companion plants#Companion plants by family|see table]]), the sowing cost of a cover crop (seed and machinery) is around '''€100/ha'''.
*'''Impact on yield''' : Various [[:Category:Experiments|experiments]] have shown possible yield gains with legume-based associations (0 to 400 kg/ha). This increase is mainly observed in shallower soils (calcareous clay type), where stimulation of oilseed rape by the cover crop compensates for the lack of [[soil fertility]]. In deeper soils (such as [[loam]]), yield gains are not systematic (available nitrogen). On the other hand, associations with '''non-legumes often lead to significant and non-negligible yield losses''' (up to 1,000 kg/ha).

==Environmental and agronomic impact==

===Advantages===

*'''Alternative to the use of residual herbicides'''.
*Can be used as cover crop, intercrop or green mulch.
*Complements well '''no-till'''.
*'''Reduces the weed seed bank''' in the long term.
*'''Soil quality''': Increases '''[[organic matter]]''' (depending on biomass produced) and improves '''soil structure'''. Protects the topsoil against [[Erosion|erosion]] and fertility loss.
*'''Fertility''': Mobilizes fertilizing elements at the surface.
*'''Floral diversity''' : Favors natural enemies and [[pollinators]].
*'''Pests''' : [[Companion plants]], by increasing plant diversity and nitrogen concentration, help limit the impact of autumn pests (fewer larvae per plant). To achieve these goals, other elements of the technical itinerary must be mobilized (earlier sowing date, nitrogen placement at sowing, organic matter input, etc.)
*'''Beneficial effects on the agro-ecosystem''' : optimization of natural resource use (solar radiation, water, soil nutrients), reduction of water runoff, nutrient leaching, soil [[Erosion|erosion]] and weed suppression.

===Disadvantages / risks===

*Incompatible with '''hoeing''' and '''flaming''' during their growing season.
*'''Do not produce a marketable harvest'''.
*Risk of producing a '''host fauna for certain pests''' (slugs, aphids…)
*'''Depressive effect on the yield''' of the following crop if destruction is too late (high C/N ratio).
* Risk of '''inhibiting germination or growth of the main crop.'''
*May '''carry over a disease or pest''' between two crops.
*May require an '''additional machinery pass'''.

== Sources==

* [https://opera-connaissances.chambres-agriculture.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=199781 Activating the agronomic assets of cover crops], CA Drôme, 2017
* [https://opera-connaissances.chambres-agriculture.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=198351 Soil cover in intercrop: Turning a regulatory constraint into an agronomic asset], Chambers of Agriculture of Lorraine (2016) and Meuse (2023)
* [https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00009673_pdf.pdf Alternative weed control in vegetable farming], [[Chambre d'agriculture|Chamber of Agriculture]] of Ain, 2016
* [https://opera-connaissances.chambres-agriculture.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=159880 Magellan Guide], 2016
* [https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Implanter_Des_Cultures_Allelopathiques_En_Grandes_Cultures Establishing allelopathic crops in arable farming], GECO, 2021
* [https://opera-connaissances.chambres-agriculture.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=160139 Summary of work of the soil conservation agriculture group since 2014], GVA, 2018
* [https://www.biotechnologies-vegetales.com/webinaire-4/ Webinar], French Association of Plant Biotechnologies, 2021

{{Annexes de la pratique}}
<references />
[[fr:Plantes compagnes pour réguler les adventices]]
[[de:Begleitpflanzen_zur_Unkrautregulierung]]
[[el:Συνοδευτικά_φυτά_για_τον_έλεγχο_των_ζιζανίων]]
[[es:Plantas_compañeras_para_regular_las_malezas]]
[[fi:Kumppanikasvit_rikkakasvien_säätelyyn]]
[[hu:Növénytársítások_a_gyomok_szabályozására]]
[[it:Piante_compagne_per_regolare_le_erbacce]]
[[nl:Gezelschapsplanten_om_onkruid_te_reguleren]]
[[pl:Rośliny_towarzyszące_do_regulacji_chwastów]]
[[pt:Plantas_companheiras_para_controlar_as_ervas_daninhas]]
[[ar:النباتات_المرافقة_للسيطرة_على_الحشائش_الضارة]]

Mulching against weeds

2026-02-18T13:14:51Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Paillis de paille.jpg
| Type de production=Market gardening@ Field crops@ Viticulture@ Arboriculture@ Horticulture - Aromatic and medicinal plants
| Objectif=Weeds
}}

{{Pages liées}}
Mulching is a lever against weeds because it '''blocks light'''. It is generally applied after [[weeding]] the plot.

This method also has the advantages of '''retaining soil moisture''', maintaining its '''temperature''', and '''protecting against erosion'''.

== Organic mulching ==
It is important to choose a mulch adapted to the crop and soil, so you must consider:

* the '''pH''' of the mulch and that required by the crop
* the '''nutrient''' needs of the soil
* the '''absence of seeds.'''

'''[[Diversification]]''' of mulches is important because it prevents '''soil depletion''', '''meets''' its needs, and also '''promotes fauna diversity'''.
{| class="wikitable"
|
![[Ramial chipped wood|Ramial Chipped Wood]] ([[RCW]])
!Straw and hay
!Hemp [[straw]]
!Flax [[straw]]
![[Compost]]
!Grass clippings
![[Miscanthus]]
|-
!Thickness
|15 cm
|10 - 20 cm
|10 cm
|10 cm
|6 - 7 cm
|5 - 20 cm. Thickness is less if the grass is fresh than if it has been dried
|10 cm
|-
!Cost
|0 - 4.5 €/m2
|0.5 - 2 €/m2
|5 - 10 €/m2
|2 - 10 €/m2
|
|
|1.5 - 10 €/m2
|-
!Duration
|2 years
|A few months
|2 - 3 years
|1 - 2 years
|
|A few months
|2 years
|-
!Advantages
|Retains soil moisture well

Slow degradation because composed of lignified material

Local
|Locally available

Low cost

Allows soil to breathe
|Promotes soil life
|
|Enriches soil with humus thanks to rapid decomposition
|C/N around 10 so nutrients are quickly available
|May be locally available

Neutral pH
|-
!Disadvantages
|
|Rapid degradation
|High cost
|Rapid degradation
|
|May ferment and thus raise temperature
|High cost

Strong wind uptake if site is exposed.
|}
[[File:Paillage herbe.jpg|right|frameless]]

=== Advantages ===

* Adds '''organic matter'''.
* Improves '''soil structure'''.
* Promotes '''biodiversity'''.

== Tarp ==
The tarp is an easy-to-install alternative that offers interesting '''opacity''' to fight weeds. The drawback is that the tarp is not always biodegradable, which can pollute soils.
[[File:Bâche noire.jpg|right|frameless]]

== Biodegradable fabric ==
These fabrics are biodegradable alternatives to tarps; just be careful that they do not serve as a planting support for weed seeds that might stick to them.

They are made of jute fibers, [[:Category:Hemp|hemp]], cotton, [[:Category:Flax|flax]], or coconut.

== Living mulch ==
Living mulch corresponds to '''[[cover crops]]'''; it can be advantageous for weed control but also for fixing [[nitrogen]] if it includes [[legumes]]. However, it requires closer management and thoughtful composition.

== Feedback ==

=== Experience of the Interprofessional Technical Center for Fruits and Vegetables (CITFL) ===
A study conducted by CITFL<ref>https://www.ctifl.fr/projet-sopam-tableau-comparatif-des-paillages-biodegradables</ref> established the impact of different mulches on weed cover in [[market gardening]].
{| class="wikitable"
!Type of mulch
!Quantity or thickness
!Weed cover level
|-
|RCW
|6.8 kg/m2
|15%
|-
|Forest mulch
|9 kg/m2
|7%
|-
|Grass clippings
|8.6 kg/m2
|2%
|-
|[[Wheat]] straw
|10 kg/m2
|10%
|-
|Paper mulch
|112 g/m2
|0%
|-
|Polyethylene mulch
|20 µm
|0%
|}

=== Farmers' experiences ===

* [[Alternative to weeding by mulching or grass cover|Wool mulching]]
* [[What thickness of mulch to reduce weed cover in vegetable crops?|Mulching in market gardening]]
* [[Woven mulch on the row in zero pesticide residue orchards|Woven mulching in orchards]]
* [[GAEC des voyages|Mulch rotation]]

== Sources ==

* Pascal Balleux, Damien Gillain. 2021. Good agroforestry practices. ''Dossier - Mulching against weeds.'' [12/02/2026]. https://reseauwallonpac.be/sites/default/files/dossier_-_paillages_contre_les_adventices.pdf
* Charlotte Berthelot, Vanessa Demoisson, Loïc Fouyer, Romane Jean, Mélanie Riou. Tenace, a project to eradicate weeds. [12/02/2026]. https://www.ctifl.fr/tenace-un-projet-pour-venir-a-bout-des-adventices-infos-ctifl-378
* F. Berger, Ph. Delval, M. Gayrard. 2018. Covering the base of plantations to fight weeds. [12/02/2026]. https://ecophytopic.fr/leviers/proteger/recouvrir-le-pied-des-plantations-pour-lutter-contre-les-adventices
* Shahid Farooq, Mubshar Hussain, Noman Mehboob, Wagas Ahmed Minhas, Hafeez Ur Rehman, Muhammad Yahya. 2022. The Influence of Different Crop Mulches on Weed Infestation, Soil Properties and Productivity of Wheat under Conventional and Conservation Production Systems. [12/02/2026]. https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/12/1/9
* Serres Val-de-Loire. 2025. Different types of mulching and their uses. [12/02/2026]. https://www.serresvaldeloire.com/actus-conseils/paillage-sol/les-differents-types-de-paillage-et-leurs-usages/
[[de:Mulchen_gegen_Unkräuter]]
[[fr:Paillage_contre_les_adventices]]
[[de:Mulchen gegen Unkräuter]]
[[el:Κάλυψη_εδάφους_ενάντια_στα_ζιζάνια]]
[[es:Acolchado_contra_las_malezas]]
[[fi:Multaus_kasvintuhoojia_vastaan]]
[[hu:Mulcsozás_gyomok_ellen]]
[[it:Pacciamatura_contro_le_infiorescenze]]
[[nl:Mulchen_ter_bestrijding_van_onkruid]]
[[pl:Ściółkowanie_przeciw_chwastom]]
[[pt:Cobertura_do_solo_contra_as_ervas_daninhas]]
[[ar:تغطية_التربة_لمكافحة_الأعشاب_الضارة]]

Managed grazing

2026-02-18T13:14:10Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Pâturage.jpg
| Mots-clés=Targeted grazing, Orchard grazing, Practicing cover and regrowth grazing, Ecological grazing
}}
'''Targeted grazing''' (also called prescribed or managed grazing) is a complementary solution to weed control methods. '''Animals are used as weed control tools to weaken weeds, reduce their reproductive capacity, and decrease their presence over time'''. This specific goal is achieved through planning and controlling 4 parameters:

* the '''animal species''' grazing
* the '''grazing period'''
* the '''duration''' and '''intensity''' of grazing.

== Difference between conventional grazing and targeted grazing ==
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Conventional grazing
!Targeted grazing
|-
!Main objective
|Feed the animals
|Manage vegetation by defoliation or trampling
|-
!Impact on weeds
|Consumed secondarily
|Animals are used as weed control tools
|-
!Planning
|Grazing depends on UAA and herd size.
|Grazing determined according to the weed (limited in time, targeted in space, adjusted in intensity)
|}

== Role of different species ==
Each species has specific feeding behavior.

=== Cattle ===
Cattle mainly consume '''grasses''' and are '''less selective under high grazing pressure.'''

They are useful for:

* '''reducing overall biomass'''
* limiting grass dominance
* '''preparing the ground''' for other species.

However, caution is needed because they:

* may '''trample weeds that sheep and goats might eat'''
* are heavy and can '''compact the soil''' depending on climatic conditions.

=== Sheep ===
[[File:Samuel Foubert BrebisBleBoue.jpg|right|frameless]]
Sheep are '''more selective''' but have some advantages:

* they can be used to '''graze cereal plots at early tillering and/or cover crops between crops'''
* they have '''good precision''' on targeted areas.

=== Goats ===
Goats consume '''woody plants''' and '''less palatable species'''.

They are suited for:

* brush
* brambles
* invasive woody plants
* difficult perennial weeds.

=== Feeding learning ===
Animals must '''learn to feed on weeds'''. This involves:

* '''feeding training''', i.e., exposing young animals to weeds so they learn to consume these plants.
* '''leader animals'''
* '''high-intensity grazing for a short time''' which encourages animals to graze much less selectively.

== Grazing period ==

=== Weed palatability ===
The '''plant stage''' is decisive; indeed, some weeds '''lose palatability as they develop'''. It is therefore important for farmers to know the weeds to identify periods when they are most sensitive to grazing.

Grazing is more effective when '''weeds are more palatable than other plants''', i.e., when they are young and before flowering or seed set.

=== Effects of grazing on weeds ===
Targeted grazing can damage weeds in several ways depending on the timing:

* in '''early spring''', it allows '''elimination of new weed growth'''; over a long period, the plant is weakened and eventually dies
* '''later in the spring season''', it can '''prevent flowering''' and thus seed formation
* during the '''weed growing season''', grazing can '''stress''' the weed and '''reduce its competition with desired plant species'''
* in '''autumn''', it can '''disrupt nutrient flow''' to roots and crowns, which '''reduces carbohydrate reserves''' necessary for weed growth.

== Grazing intensity and duration ==

=== Insufficient intensity ===

* '''Weeds are selected'''
* '''Palatable plants disappear'''
* '''Resistant weeds dominate'''

=== Excessive intensity ===

* Risk of '''overgrazing'''
* '''Soil degradation''' (compaction and erosion)

=== Conclusion ===
The goal is to establish a '''strong but short pressure''' followed by a '''rest period''' so desired plants can develop. It is thus important to list the weeds present on the plot and estimate their quantity to plan appropriate pressure and duration.

== Advantages ==

* '''Improves water infiltration and use'''
* Possible maintenance of riparian zones, high-altitude or hard-to-access areas
* '''Fertilization''' provided by animals
* Nutrient recycling
* Improvement of '''soil structure'''
* '''Reduction of chemical and mechanical treatments'''
* Possible yield increase, notably thanks to sheep grazing winter cereals.<ref>Agrof’île. 2022. Pâturage des céréales : les premières références. [03/02/2026]. <nowiki>https://www.agrofile.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/POSCIF_Fiche_technique_CEREALES.pdf</nowiki></ref>
* Alternative method on plots limited in phytosanitary products.

== Limitations ==

* Late grazing could '''disseminate weed seeds''' (via animal droppings or hair)
* Grazing depends on '''climatic conditions'''; animals can only work on load-bearing soil
* '''Animal welfare must be monitored''' as some weeds can be toxic. Studies show complementary feed can reduce effects of some toxins (terpenes, tannins, oxalates, etc.)
* It is essential to '''know the weed flora well''' to establish a '''precise targeted grazing plan'''
* '''Risk of overgrazing''', hence the importance of precise targeted grazing management.

== Conclusion ==

* Targeted grazing is part of '''integrated weed management'''
* It requires '''detailed knowledge of weed species''' present and their quantity
* Its effectiveness depends on a '''precise grazing plan''' (period when weeds are palatable, choice of animal species, grazing intensity and duration)

== Targeted grazing advice according to weeds present on the plot ==
A study conducted in the United States<ref>Jason C. Davison, Ed Smith and Linda M.Wilson. Livestock Grazing Guidelines for Controlling Noxious Weeds in the Western United States. [03/02/2026]. <nowiki>https://www.weld.gov/files/sharedassets/public/departments/public-works/documents/livestock_graizng_guidelinesdavison_et_al.-2007.pdf</nowiki></ref> established a list of recommendations for targeted grazing of certain weeds, here are some:

{| class="wikitable"
!Weed
!Animal
!Weed growth stage
!Plant response
!Number of treatments per year
|-
| rowspan="3" |Canada thistle
|Sheep
|Seedling vegetative stages
| rowspan="3" |Reduction in vigor, size and flowering
| rowspan="3" |Often enough to prevent flowering
|-
|Cows, calves and young cattle
|Seedling, early vegetative stages
|-
|Goats
|All stages
|-
|Japanese knotweed
|Goats (females and kids)
|Vegetative and flowering stages
|Reduction in bud number and significant slowing of growth process
|Several times per year for at least 3 years
|-
| rowspan="2" |Euphorbias
|Sheep
|Vegetative stages
| rowspan="2" |Decrease in stem density and plant biomass
| rowspan="2" |At least twice per season or continuously for a minimum of 4 to 5 years
|-
|Goats
|Vegetative to flowering stages
|-
| rowspan="3" |Musk thistle
|Sheep
| rowspan="3" |From rosette to bolting stage
| rowspan="3" |Reduction in vigor, size and flower production
| rowspan="3" |Once or twice per year (for at least 3 years) at bud/flowering stage
|-
|Goats
|-
|Cows and calves
|-
|Star thistle
|Goats and kids
|All growth stages
|Reduced growth during treatment year. Rosettes regrow after animal removal
|One treatment per year at flowering stage (for at least 3 years)
|-
|Common couch grass
|Horses, sheep, cattle and goats
|Early vegetative stage
|Reduced plant vigor
|Continuous grazing until other control methods are applied
|-
| rowspan="2" |Spotted knapweed
|Sheep (ewes, lambs)
| rowspan="2" |All growth stages before flowering
| rowspan="2" |Reduction in vigor, density, size, flowering stems and seed production
| rowspan="2" |Three treatments per year (for at least 3 years) between rosette and bolting stages and during regrowth
|-
|Goats, kids
|-
| rowspan="3" |Centaury
|Sheep
| rowspan="3" |All growth stages before flowering
| rowspan="3" |Reduction in vigor, size and flower production
| rowspan="3" |Two or three treatments during rosette or bolting stages for 3 to 5 years
|-
|Goats
|-
|Livestock
|}

== Grazing and perennial plants ==

=== Orchards ===
Animals that can be introduced into high-stem orchards are:
[[File:Bovin pommier.jpg|right|frameless]]
[[File:Poules-vergers.jpg|right|frameless]]
* sheep
* cattle (stocking rate about 2/ha), mainly used in apple orchards
* chickens (stocking rate about 500/ha for adults and 1500/ha for young)
* geese (stocking rate 50 to 100/ha)
* ducks (stocking rate 100 to 500/ha)
* pigs
* equines

It is advised to '''remove animals 2 to 3 weeks before fruit drop and until the end of harvest'''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Spacing between fruit trees for a pre-orchard.
Source: Osaé
!Species
!Distance along row
!Distance between rows
!Usual density
|-
|Apple
|10-12 m
|10-12 m
|90-100 trees/ha
|-
|Pear
|10-12 m
|10-15 m
|70-80 trees/ha
|-
|Cherry
|10-12 m
|12-15 m
|70-80 trees/ha
|-
|Plum-Mirabelle
|7-10 m
|10-14 m
|100-120 trees/ha
|-
|Walnut
|12-14 m
|15-18 m
|40-50 trees/ha
|}

=== Vineyards ===
[[File:Ovin vigne.webp|right|frameless]]
In vineyards, '''grazing is done from November to April''' generally with sheep (Ouessant and Shropshire sheep preferred), pigs or poultry.

=== Constraints ===

* '''Monitoring grass quantity''' on plots so animals do not damage crops
* '''Crop protection''' (wooden fences, metal collars)
* '''Remove animals during phyto and copper treatments''' (toxic for some animals)
* '''Additional work time''' (monitoring, fencing…). Some farmers '''partner with breeders''', allowing them additional quality grazing areas.

=== Advantages ===

* '''Saves weed control passes''' (mechanical and chemical). However, care is needed as some animals sort what they eat (e.g., chickens).
* Animals '''contribute to prophylaxis''' by controlling some pests, trampling leaves and fruits, and consuming damaged fruits.
* '''Fertilization''' input
* '''Increased biodiversity'''
* Increased '''income diversity'''
* '''Reduced frost risk''' due to maintaining short or no grass cover beneath trees. This favors heat exchange from soil to atmosphere, reducing nighttime temperature drops.

== Feedback ==

* [[Pâturage des cochons dans les vignes|Pigs in vineyards]]
* [[Pâturage des ovins dans les céréales|Sheep in cereals]]
* [[Pâturage des ovins dans les repousses de colza pour faire face à la sécheresse|Sheep in regrowth rapeseed]]
* [[Pâturage du triticale par des ovins|Triticale grazing by sheep]]
* [https://www.jediagnostiquemaferme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/LIVRET-REFERENCES-IRAEE-2-ANIMAUX-DANS-LE-VERGER-VDEF-1.pdf Sheep under apple trees]
* [[Déprimage de céréales par des bovins|Cereal trampling by cattle]]
* [https://www.jediagnostiquemaferme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/LIVRET-REFERENCES-IRAEE-2-ANIMAUX-DANS-LE-VERGER-VDEF-1.pdf Poultry under apple and peach trees]
* [https://www.jediagnostiquemaferme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/LIVRET-REFERENCES-IRAEE-2-ANIMAUX-DANS-LE-VERGER-VDEF-1.pdf Poultry under olive trees]

== See also ==

* [[Pâturage des ovins dans les vignes|Sheep grazing in vineyards]]
* [[Pratiquer le pâturage des couverts et des repousses|Cover and regrowth grazing]]

== References ==

* Agrof’île. 2022. Cover crop grazing: a winning formula. [03/02/2026]. https://www.agrofile.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/POSCIF_Fiche_technique_COUVERTS.pdf
* Agrof’île. 2022. Cereal grazing: first references. [03/02/2026]. https://www.agrofile.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/POSCIF_Fiche_technique_CEREALES.pdf
* I. Anghioni, P.C.F Carvalho, F. Gastal, S.K. Harrison, C.R. Lang, S.B.C. Lustosa, A. de Moraes, M.Z. Schuster and R.M. Sulc. 2018. Effects of crop rotation and sheep grazing management on the seedbank and emerged weed flora under a no-tillage integrated crop-livestock system. [03/02/2026]. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-agricultural-science/article/effects-of-crop-rotation-and-sheep-grazing-management-on-the-seedbank-and-emerged-weed-flora-under-a-notillage-integrated-croplivestock-system/A5C39CB3B6BC1D3A5AA1BC9FF4EE1DA1?utm_source=chatgpt.com
* Jack Arterburn. 2020. The role of grazing in integrated weed management. [03/02/2026]. https://www.agproud.com/articles/53638-the-role-of-grazing-in-integrated-weed-management?utm_source=chatgpt.com
* Derek W. Bailey, Elizabeth A.Burritt, Andres F.Cibils, Richard E.Estell, John R. Hendrickson, Mark Horney, Karen L.Launchbaugh, Jeffrey C. Mosley and John W.Walker. 2019. Targeted Livestock Grazing: Prescription for Healthy Rangelands. [03/02/2026]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550742419300399
* Biofil. 2020. Poultry for orchard weed control. [03/02/2026]. https://abiodoc.docressources.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=4659
* Bio de Provence. Orchard grazing, an experimental approach. [03/02/2026]. https://www.herbea.org/fr/downloads/6272/2017_Bio-de-Provence_IRAEE_Paturage-en-vergers-synthese-version.pdf
* Bio en Grand Est. Ecological grazing in viticulture. [03/02/2026]. https://alsace.lpo.fr/images/stories/Articles/docLPO/Vinbiodiv-F-Flyer_Ecopaturage.pdf
* Normandy Chamber of Agriculture. 2024. Proper pasture management to avoid chemical weed control. [03/02/2026]. https://opera-connaissances.chambres-agriculture.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=217653#:~:text=Alterner%20fauche%20et%20pâture%20Cela,Ni%20trop%2C%20ni%20trop%20peu
* Sylvie Colleu. 2020. REVE study: Orchard-livestock reconnection. [03/02/2026]. http://gis-fruits.org/content/download/4224/41364?version=1
* Jason C. Davison, Ed Smith and Linda M.Wilson. Livestock Grazing Guidelines for Controlling Noxious Weeds in the Western United States. [03/02/2026]. https://www.weld.gov/files/sharedassets/public/departments/public-works/documents/livestock_graizng_guidelinesdavison_et_al.-2007.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
* Eddy Dumbardon-Martial, Anaïs and Christian Lavigne. 2012. Poultry for biological weed control in orchards. [03/02/2026]. https://fruits.edpsciences.org/articles/fruits/abs/2012/05/fruits120029/fruits120029.html
* INRAE. Orchard grazing. [03/02/2026]. https://www.jediagnostiquemaferme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/LIVRET-REFERENCES-IRAEE-2-ANIMAUX-DANS-LE-VERGER-VDEF-1.pdf
* OSAE. Reintroducing grazing in grassed perennial crops. [03/02/2026]. https://osez-agroecologie.org/syntheses-techniques/reintroduire-le-paturage-dans-les-cultures-perennes-enherbees/du-concept-a-la-technique-3/
* Produire Bio. 2024. Grazing to suppress cereals and destroy covers: multiple benefits. [03/02/2026]. https://www.produire-bio.fr/articles-pratiques/le-paturage-pour-deprimer-les-cereales-et-detruire-les-couverts-des-benefices-multiples/
* Delphine Scohy. 2019. Combining grazing and fruit production: a system with multiple benefits. [03/02/2026]. https://www.web-agri.fr/paturage/article/164779/les-pres-vergers-combiner-paturage-et-production-de-fruits#:~:text=Un%20p%C3%A2turage%20possible%2010%20mois,sans%20p%C3%A2turage%20pour%20des%20pommiers
* Martin Trouillard. 2022. Sheep grazing under orchards: two years of on-farm trials end. [03/02/2026]. https://www.fibl.org/fr/infotheque/message/paturage-ovin-sous-vergers-deux-annees-dessais-on-farm-sachevent
* University of California. Integrated Weed Management. [03/02/2026]. https://ucanr.edu/site/integrated-weed-management/grazing-0?utm_source=chatgpt.com
[[fr:Pâturage dirigé]]
[[de:Gezielte_Weidewirtschaft]]
[[el:Καθοδηγούμενη_βόσκηση]]
[[es:Pastoreo_dirigido]]
[[fi:Ohjattu_laidunnus]]
[[hu:Irányított_legeltetés]]
[[it:Pascicoltura_direzionata]]
[[nl:Geleid_weiden]]
[[pl:Pasterstwo_zarządzane]]
[[pt:Pastoreio_dirigido]]
[[ar:الرعي_الموجه]]

Row orientation to limit weed growth

2026-02-18T13:12:40Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Organisme=Centre National d'Agroécologie
|Programme=Conserwa
|Image=Comparaison de l'orientation est-ouest et nord-sud.jpg
|ImageCaption=East-west orientation (left) and north-south (right)
|Type de production=Field crops
|Objectif=Weeds
|Mots-clés=Sowing, Row orientation
}}
East-west planting is a sowing technique that consists of orienting crop rows in the east-west direction. This technique allows to '''maximize the shading of weeds by the crop''', thus reducing their growth and competition for resources.<ref>Why consider sowing east-west? https://www.weedsmart.org.au/content/why-consider-sowing-east-west/</ref>

==Description==
East-west planting is particularly effective in [[:Category:Regions|regions]] where the sun is low in the sky during winter, such as in Europe or Australia, because the shadow is maximized. This '''reduces the amount of light available to weeds''', thereby limiting their [[photosynthesis]] and growth.

In the photos, it is clear that the light reaching the soil is much less when rows are oriented east-west.

== Advantages ==

=== Cost ===
This method is '''100% free''' and requires no material investment. It may require reorganization of sowing if tractor paths are changed.

=== Impact on weeds ===
Few studies have quantified the actual impact on weed infestation and competition of this method.

Catherine Boger, in Australia, observed a '''51% reduction in weed biomass in a [[wheat]] crop''' and a '''37% reduction in [[barley]]''' with east-west row orientation compared to north-south orientation.

The method seems to be especially '''effective in cereals''' as it did not yield convincing results for [[canola]] or [[peas]].

=== Impact on light availability ===

[[:Category:Crops|Crops]] oriented east-west generally intercept more light, resulting in better light competition against weeds. This is especially true for cereals with '''28% more light captured by wheat and 18% by [[:Category:Barley|barley]]''' compared to a north-south orientation.

Notably, thanks to this phenomenon of maximal plant cover and light interception, '''soil moisture is generally better''' when this method is practiced.

=== Impact on yield ===

Again, significant results are found in '''cereals''' where '''yields are on average 25% higher''' thanks to this sowing orientation.

== Disadvantages ==

* This planting orientation may '''not be feasible or may represent a significant loss of time''' depending on the '''shape of the field.''' Indeed, if the plot is rectangular and oriented north-south, sowing along the width is a considerable loss of time and the area of turning tracks is increased.
* We lack scientific and technical data to assess the relevance of this practice, but it does not seem to present glaring disadvantages except for implementation depending on the situation.

== Perspectives ==
Trials are underway by the [[Structure:Centre National d'Agroécologie|Centre National d'Agroécologie]] and numerical data should provide more insight into the method under metropolitan France conditions.

== Sources ==
This article was written by [[Utilisateur:Jasmin Razongles|Jasmin Razongles]], agronomy engineering student in apprenticeship at the [[Structure:Centre National d'Agroécologie|Centre National d'Agroécologie]].

<references />
{{Pages liées}}
[[fr:Orienter les rangs pour limiter la pousse des adventices]]
[[es:Orientar las hileras para limitar el crecimiento de las malezas]]
[[it:Orientare le file per limitare la crescita delle infestanti]]
[[de:Reihenführung zur Begrenzung des Unkrautwuchses]]
[[el:Κατευθύνσεις σειρών για τον περιορισμό της ανάπτυξης ζιζανίων]]
[[nl:Rijen richten om de groei van onkruid te beperken]]
[[hu:Sorok irányítása a gyomok növekedésének korlátozására]]
[[pl:Ukierunkowanie rzędów w celu ograniczenia wzrostu chwastów]]
[[fi:Rivien_suuntauksen_rajoittaminen_rikkakasvien_kasvun_estämiseksi]]
[[pt:Orientar_as_fileiras_para_limitar_o_crescimento_das_ervas_daninhas]]
[[ar:توجيه_الصفوف_للتقليل_من_نمو_الأعشاب_الضارة]]

Occultation

2026-02-18T13:12:13Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Practice
| Type de production = Market gardening
| Objectif = Weeds@ Weed management by soil covering
| Image = Occultation.jpg
| Mots-clés = Weed management
}}

Occultation is a [[weed control]] method that consists of '''eliminating dormant seeds''' stored in the soil, and '''seedlings''' by '''heat''' and '''light deprivation'''. Weed seeds placed in moist conditions and under the influence of solar radiation (temperature increase) germinate then perish in the absence of light. It is performed before planting.

Although the use of plastic may not seem ecological, it is a temporary method that can help clean the soil of dormant seeds and then, after a few years, allow to do without it.

== Prerequisites ==

* '''When:''' The effectiveness of occultation varies '''according to the seasons'''. It is maximal on plantings from '''April to August''', more limited from January to March (choosing a thermal film is crucial in this period). The highest soil temperatures occur when days are long, temperatures are high, the sky is clear, and [[wind]] is low. The soil warming effect is not as strong on cloudy days. Wind disperses trapped heat and can detach or damage the sheets. Occultation is also possible in October to maintain the setup throughout winter. However, this configuration should be reserved for soils less prone to compaction. It may also favor voles.
* '''Advantages:'''
** '''Non-[[chemical]]'''
** After several years, if the weed seed bank in the soil is well reduced, it can be dispensed with.

* '''Disadvantages:'''
** '''Long''' method, minimum 4 weeks.
** '''Limited effectiveness on [[perennial]] plants''': treatment periods must be extended.

== Equipment: which plastic to use? ==
Several options are possible but factors to consider are opacity, permeability, and thermal effect.

=== Black polyethylene ===
{{Image | Image = Occultation.jpg | Align = Right | Frame = True}}
'''Ease of installation:'''

* '''Easy mechanization''' (mulch layer unroller).
* Strong wind catch (during laying).
* Delicate removal (fragile).

'''Permeability:'''

* None, so little risk of surface drying.
* '''Keeps soil moist.'''

'''Effectiveness on weed growth:'''

* Good (if planting conditions are optimal).
* The '''thermal effect''' of polyethylene optimizes weed germination.
* No occultation of inter-bed paths in [[mechanical]] laying.

'''Lifespan:'''

* Difficult or impossible to reuse. It may tear when removed or be biodegradable, lasting 2 months in summer and 6 in winter, then can be buried and decomposed by microorganisms.
* Cost: 1 m on 1000 m for €180.
{{Image | Image = Toile tirée.jpg | Align = Right | Frame = True}}

=== Woven fabric ===
'''Ease of installation:'''

* Light but prefer heavier ones (130 g/m²).
* Medium wind catch.
* Possible mechanization.
* Various widths available.
* '''Suitable for uneven soils''' (basins).

'''Permeability:'''

* Good to medium (varies with quality and age).
* '''Tends to dry''' the soil surface but re-wetting possible by irrigation and rain.

'''Effectiveness on weed growth:'''

* Good (if planting conditions are optimal and moisture is maintained in the top few cm of soil).
* Lower if thickness is low and/or fabric is old.
* Surface soil drying.
* Slightly thermal.

'''Lifespan:'''

* '''Reusable''' for 5 to 10 years (multiple uses per year possible). This fabric becomes less opaque to light due to solar radiation and weathering.
* Cost: 100 m roll by 1 m costs about €60.
{{Image | Image = Img18.jpg | Align = Right | Frame = True}}

=== Green or black silage tarp ===
'''Ease of installation:'''

* Good wind resistance.
* Custom cutting possible. Available in large widths.
* Heavy.
* '''Manual laying only'''. Manual laying and removal are more demanding as tarp size increases. Limit widths to 3 beds or 4 m max and handle with two people to optimize laying/removal time (wind catch, unrolling...).
* Ensure soil is very flat to avoid water pooling causing tarp tears during removal.

'''Permeability:'''

* '''None''', little risk of re-wetting and surface drying.
* Keeps soil moist.
* Risk of compaction in heavy soil and after fine tillage.

'''Effectiveness on weed growth:'''

* Good (if planting conditions are optimal).
* The '''thermal effect''' of the tarp optimizes weed germination.

'''Lifespan:'''

* Cost: 6 m by 50 m about €150.

== Process ==

{{Image | Image = Désherbage solaire.png | Align = Right | Frame = True | Caption = Weed management by occultation}}
# '''Soil preparation''': soil preparation is equivalent to a '''false seedbed.'''
#* Avoid deep loosening by plowing or rototilling, favor tools with tines ([[cultivator]], ridge cultivator, actisol) that maintain seed positioning in the soil profile. The goal is to keep the maximum '''germinating seed on the surface.'''
#* A '''very smooth soil''' (roll the soil), with few clods and litter on the surface, will allow the tarp to rest firmly on the soil, producing fewer air pockets, reducing tear risk from wind and heat dissipation. Do not prepare too finely when soil is [[clay]] or [[silt]] as it will '''compact'''. High moisture and long occultation duration worsen this.
#* If the tarp is applied on a prepared seedbed, it allows '''later planting with minimal soil disturbance''', minimizing chances of bringing buried weed seeds that survived treatment to the surface. Preparing a seedbed can also improve soil water retention.
# '''Moisten the soil''' to obtain better results. Irrigate so moisture under the tarp is sufficient and constant to allow weeds to '''germinate under optimal conditions'''. Moist seeds are more sensitive to '''thermal destruction''' than dry seeds, and moisture can '''stimulate germination'''. Water also increases conductance, allowing heat to be transported deeper in the soil profile to reach '''more deeply buried seeds'''. Raised bed or ridge preparation is generally preferred to promote drainage in case of excess water. Also consider that this configuration will be that of the following crop to minimize soil reworking between occultation and planting.
# '''Apply the plastic:''' the closer the plastic is to the soil surface, the better the heating. It must be well '''stretched''' and '''pressed''' to the soil (a short spray after laying improves adhesion). To prevent weed growth, avoid any air passage under the plastic or soil hollows. Laying can be done only on planting strips, but applying over the whole field can make the tarp even more effective by reducing heat loss at edges. This avoids leaving bare soil where weeds can survive.{{Image | Image = Application Polyéthylène noir.jpg | Align = Right | Frame = True}}
#* '''Mechanical laying – Straw layerer, unroller:'''
#** '''Fast'''
#** Good wind resistance (buried in soil).
#** Laying is delicate if film is fragile.
#* '''Weighting with soil shovelfuls:'''
#** No specific equipment but physically demanding.
#** Medium wind resistance.
#* '''Metal staples:'''
#** Fast.
#** '''Good wind resistance''' (1 staple every ~4 m).
#** Difficult if soil is rocky.
#** '''Removal sometimes difficult''' ([[rust]]).
#** '''Pierces the film.'''
#** Edging is still necessary if field is windy.
#* '''Silo bags, tunnel bars:'''
#** Good wind resistance (1 bag every 5/6 m approx.).
#** Fast for re-laying.
#** '''Heavy to handle''' (laying and removal).
#** Cost.
# '''Option:''' to treat small areas in cooler climates, it may be useful to use a '''double layer of plastic with an air gap''' created by objects such as plastic bottles or PVC pipes between layers. This method has been shown to increase soil temperature by 1 to 5°C more than temperatures obtained with a single layer of transparent plastic.
# '''Duration of cover application:''' varies according to installation date:
#* '''January to March''': 8 weeks (planting: early March to early May).
#* '''April to mid-May''': 6 then 5 weeks (planting: mid-May to mid-June).
#* '''Mid-May to mid-September''': 4 weeks (planting: mid-June to mid-October).
#* '''September to year-end''': long occultation aiming for early sowing (March-April next year), especially in soils difficult to work after winter.
#* For early periods, this implies being able to work the soil and prepare a seedbed at late winter.
# '''Ensure to keep the top 10 cm of soil sufficiently moist''', necessary for weed germination.
# '''Planting: Minimize soil disturbance''' after removing the plastic to avoid bringing new weed seeds to the surface. Planting can occur immediately after tarp removal or require drying time depending on context. Ideally, '''direct seeding or planting without soil reworking'''. If conditions are unfavorable, necessary soil work due to surface compaction must be very shallow (3 to 5 cm, never beyond 10 cm) to limit risk of bringing weed seeds up. This can be done with a crust breaker or a [[harrow]] for example.
#* If the plastic is removed before planting, it can be reused. Otherwise, if left on soil, '''planting can be done by making holes in it'''. This prevents weed emergence.

== Comparison with solarization ==
[[Solarization]] uses a transparent tarp, it is more effective in a '''hot and sunny climate''', occultation uses a black tarp, it is more effective in [[:Category:Regions|regions]] '''colder or with more shade and wind'''.

* '''Temperature:''' higher with solarization. During solarization, light waves penetrate the transparent plastic and directly heat the soil beneath. Heat is then trapped under the plastic by a greenhouse effect. With a black tarp, solar energy is absorbed by the plastic, part of the heat is transferred to the soil and part lost to surrounding air. Applying a '''double layer''' of transparent plastic, or transparent over black, can further increase temperatures and effectiveness.
* '''Light-dependent germination:''' the black tarp could '''block germination''' of some seeds. Light is an important signal for '''germination''' of many species, and for '''[[photosynthesis]]''' of plants.

== Possible combinations ==
Occultation can be combined with solarization in conditions requiring '''optimization''' of the weed control technical itinerary. This may be the case in preparation for an '''early sowing''' of [[carrot]] or for establishing a [[leek]] nursery. Then a '''summer solarization''' (early August – late September) '''followed by occultation''' to keep the plot clean until planting '''after winter'''. If the plot is available the summer before occultation, it may be interesting to plant a frost-sensitive summer cover crop, such as [[buckwheat]] (Fagopyrum esculentum), which can develop quickly and secrete, through its roots, [[Weed management using companion plants|toxins limiting weed development]]. However, care must be taken that this cover crop does not go to seed, generating new weed flora the following year.

== Effectiveness and impact ==

=== Effectiveness against weeds ===

* Occultation weed control is effective against most '''[[annual weeds]]''', reducing their '''seed banks'''. The practice induces '''weed seed germination''' and '''seedling destruction by absence of light'''. Experiments have shown a clear effect on weed growth for several months after occultation.
* It is '''less effective against perennials''' which can survive and regrow once the tarp is removed. Generally, the longer the occultation duration, the more effective it is on perennials.

=== Impact on fauna ===
Certain [[fungi]] species may be favored by the '''microclimate''' created by the plastic film (e.g. [[Rhizoctonia solani|Rhizoctonia]]). Plastic films can form a shelter favoring rodents such as voles.

=== Economic impact ===

* There is a '''labor saving''' (weed pulling), '''treatment''' or '''mechanization cost''' ([[mechanical weed control]]) reduction.
* Initial investment ranges from '''€0.08 to €1.10/m²''' <ref>Occultation du sol avant [[carrots]] de conservation, Les Sillons de Haute Alsace, 2014 [https://polemaraichage.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Exp%C3%A9_GestionAdventices_Occultation_Carottes_r%C3%A9sultats2014.pdf]</ref> depending on thickness and plastic type used. This investment can be amortized over several years if plastic is reusable.
* Support for the '''recycling sector''' set up by [https://www.adivalor.fr/Adivalor/ Adivalor] is also important. It is financed by two means (source CPA): an eco-contribution at source of €240/t new plastic (2020) for mulch films, and collection fees of €145/t used agricultural film (UAF) for mulches when contamination rate exceeds 50% (2020). A bonus is also possible and returned for UAF with contamination below this rate: €95/t for clear plastics, €50/t for colored plastics (2020).

== Sources ==

* [https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00009673_pdf.pdf Alternative weed control in market gardening], [[Chambre d'agriculture|Chamber of Agriculture]] of Ain, 2016.
* [https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Lutte_Par_Occultation_Contre_Les_Adventices_En_Productions_Legumieres Weed management by occultation in vegetable production], GIS PICLég, 2021.
* [https://eorganic.org/node/25440 Solarization and Tarping for Weed Management on Organic Vegetable Farms in the Northeast USA], National Organic Program, 2018.
{{Practice annexes}}
[[fr:Occultation]]
[[es:Ocultación]]
[[it:Occultazione]]
[[de:Bedeckung]]
[[el:Απόκρυψη]]
[[nl:Bedekking]]
[[hu:Eltűnés]]
[[pl:Zakrycie]]
[[fi:Okultaatio]]
[[pt:Ocultação]]
[[ar:كسوف]]

Hot foam

2026-02-18T13:11:07Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique|Programme=Conserwa|Objectif=Weeding|Mots-clés=Weeding|Image=Hot foam.jpg}}
'''Hot foam weeding''' is a '''thermal, non-chemical weed control method''' that uses a mixture of '''hot water and biodegradable foam''' to kill unwanted plants. The foam acts as an '''insulating blanket''', allowing the heat from the water (typically around '''95–100°C''') to stay in contact with the weed long enough to '''destroy its cell structure'''. The plant quickly wilts and dies.

This method is increasingly seen as an alternative to herbicides, particularly in areas where chemical use is restricted or when pursuing '''organic or agroecological practices'''.

=== Description ===
# '''A machine''' heats water to near-boiling temperature.
# The hot water is mixed with a '''biodegradable foaming agent''' (often made from natural plant-based oils and sugars).
# This hot foam is applied '''directly onto the weeds'''.
# The foam holds the heat in place on the plant surface and down to the root collar.
# '''The cells of the weed burst''' due to the sustained heat, killing the aerial parts of the plant.

For perennial or deeply rooted weeds, '''repeat treatments''' may be necessary.

=== Advantages of hot foam weeding ===

* '''Chemical-free''': No herbicides are used, making it safe for humans, animals, and beneficial insects.
* '''Environmentally friendly''': Biodegradable foam and no soil contamination.
* '''Works in all weather''': Unlike some herbicides, foam weeding can be done in wet or windy conditions.
* '''Safe near water sources''': Useful near waterways, playgrounds, greenhouses, or organic plots.
* '''Selective application''': Allows precise targeting of weeds without damaging nearby crops or plants.

=== Limitations and considerations ===

* '''Fuel and energy use''': Heating water consumes energy, so this method requires diesel, gas, or electric power.
* '''Slower than spraying''': The application process is slower than chemical herbicides.
* '''Cost of equipment''': The machines (such as Weedingtech's ''Foamstream'' or similar systems) can be expensive to buy or rent.
* '''Limited soil impact''': The treatment kills the top of the plant but may not destroy deep roots—perennials might regrow.
* '''Not suitable for large-scale fields''': More effective for '''pathways, orchard rows, vineyards, horticulture, or market gardens''', rather than broad-acre crops.

=== Suitable use cases ===

* '''Orchards and vineyards''': Under-row weed control between trees or vines.
* '''Vegetable farms''': Particularly in organic farming for paths or row interspaces.
* '''Urban agriculture / community gardens''': Where chemical use is restricted.
* '''Livestock areas''': Safe around grazing zones and paddocks.
* '''Public or protected areas''': Parks, playgrounds, and areas with sensitive biodiversity.

=== Cost and access ===

* '''Machine purchase''': Can range from €10,000 to €25,000 depending on the model and capacity.
* '''Rental or contractor services''': Some companies offer service-based models for smaller farms or one-off needs.
* '''Foam agents''': Supplied as cartridges or liquid and need to be refilled regularly.

In some regions, '''subsidies or grants''' may be available for non-chemical weed control methods under environmental programs (e.g., CAP eco-schemes in the EU).

[[fr:Mousse chaude]]
[[es:Espuma caliente]]
[[it:Schiuma calda]]
[[de:Warmschaum]]
[[el:Ζεστή αφρός]]
[[nl:Warmschuim]]
[[hu:Forró hab]]
[[pl:Gorąca piana]]
[[fi:Kuuma_vaahto]]
[[pt:Espuma_quente]]
[[ar:رغوة_ساخنة]]

Weed control by cultural control

2026-02-18T13:10:39Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Grande thématique | Sous-titre =
| Titre =

| Portail parent = Weed management
| Titre court =
| Mots-clés SEO = Weed management, Weeds
| Description = Agronomic levers for weed management (rotation, sowing, etc.)
| Icone = Gestion_des_couverts_végétaux_-_Portail.png
| Glyph = Gestion-des-couverts-vegetaux}}

{{Pages liées}}
[[fr:Maîtrise des adventices par les leviers agronomiques]]
[[de:Unkrautbekämpfung_durch_landwirtschaftliche_Ansätze]]
[[el:Έλεγχος_των_ζιζανίων_μέσω_γεωργικών_εργαλείων]]
[[es:Control_de_plantas_adventicias_mediante_palancas_agronómicas]]
[[fi:Rikkakasvien_hallinta_agronomisilla_vipuvoimilla]]
[[hu:Gyomirtás_agronómiai_eszközökkel]]
[[it:Controllo_delle_erbe_infeste_con_leve_agronomiche]]
[[nl:Beheersing_van_onkruid_door_agronomische_hefbomen]]
[[pl:Zwalczanie_chwastów_przez_dźwignie_agronomiczne]]
[[pt:Controle_de_ervas_daninhas_por_meio_de_alavancas_agronomicas]]
[[ar:السيطرة_على_الأعشاب_الضارة_بواسطة_الأدوات_الزراعية]]

Introducing a cover crop during the intercrop period in vegetable production

2026-02-18T13:08:06Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
| Nom = Introducing a cover crop during intercrop periods in vegetable production
| Image = image_Introduire_un_couvert_v_g_tal_d_interculture.jpg
| ImageCaption = Photo credit: Sorghum as an intermediate crop under shelter - © L. Bzdrenga, CA 85
| Mots-clés = Carbon cycle and GHG, Climate resilience, Soil cover, Biodiversity, Soil regeneration
}}

The technique consists of establishing a [[Cover crops|cover crop]] during an '''intercrop''' ''period (the time between the harvest of one crop and the establishment of the next)''. Depending on the objectives, the cover crop may have different names :

*[[Catch crop for nitrate leaching control (CIPAN)|catch crop for nitrate leaching]] ([[CIPAN]]),
*[[Green manure]],
*[[Trap crops for pests|trap plants]],
*[[Allelopathic or biocidal intermediate crops - biofumigation|sanitizing crops]]…

The cover crop can also play a role of '''competition''' against [[weeds]] and '''limit the use of [[herbicides]]''', including [https://ephy.anses.fr/substance/glyphosate glyphosate], during the intercrop period.{{Article issu de Geco
| url = https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/geco/Concept/Introduire_Un_Couvert_Vegetal_D_Interculture}}

==Description of the technique==
Information originally from the [[Practical guide for designing vegetable cropping systems]] that are economical in phytosanitary products (2014) / [https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=2ahUKEwior-e51KvfAhW2TxUIHd6eBNsQFjAAegQIBRAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fagriculture.gouv.fr%2Ftelecharger%2F36378%3Ftoken%3D702ac6e8d79b5c7ea952cf172d310fbc&usg=AOvVaw2loKLoyptpjZfULbvH9lfv Technical sheet T1].

===Example of implementation===
Here are some examples of rotations including [[cover crops]] in [[market gardening]]<ref>[https://agriculture-de-conservation.com/sites/agriculture-de-conservation.com/IMG/pdf/ac-gabb-32.pdf Cover crops, superficial techniques, Organic farming and Agroforestry - Meeting and exchanges between farmers of South-West], published by Gabb 32. </ref> :

*[[Tomato]] – arugula – [[Cauliflower|cauliflowers]] – [[:Category:Sorghum|forage sorghum]] ('''summer cover''') – [[lettuce]]

*[[Corn salad]] – [[pea]] + [[radish]] – [[Eggplant|eggplants]] – [[wheat]] heritage variety ('''winter cover''')
*Before [[Onion|onions]], a cover crop of [[Ryegrass|ryegrass]] '''destroyed with a silage tarp''' (producing a thick mulch including residues from previous years)
*In the southeast, under shelter, forage [[sorghum]] can be established as an intercrop in spring or summer (after a [[melon]], a [[zucchini]], a late lettuce for example). 

===Details on the technique===
The choice of cover crop species depends :

*on the '''objectives of the cover''' :
**'''[[Nitrogen capture]]''',
**'''competition''' against weeds,
**'''improvement of soil structure or fertility''',
**'''reduction of pathogens'''...
*on '''constraints related to sowing''', to the '''crop''' and to the '''destruction of the cover''' :
**cost and availability of seeds,
**[[irrigation]],
**availability of equipment...
*on the '''field conditions''' :
**climate,
**soil type,
**management...
*on the '''available duration for the intercrop,''' which varies depending on the previous crop-next crop pair. A cover crop with a development cycle adapted to this duration must be chosen. This may cause a shift in the planting date of the next crop.

Alternation of families between cover crops and [[crops]] is also taken into account for better '''regulation of [[:Category:Pest (bioagressor)|bioagressors]]''' and complementarity of effects of different species.

====Soil preparation and sowing====
The sowing date is determined according to the '''species''', '''water availability''' and the '''field situation''' (presence of weeds, next crop…). The [[:Category:Objective|objective]] is to quickly obtain a homogeneous and dense cover.

Depending on the situation, various techniques are possible :

*sowing before or during harvest without soil preparation
*sowing after harvest with soil preparation
*In all cases, sowing can be done broadcast or in rows.

Under shelter or in the absence of rain, sprinkler irrigation ensures rapid and regular growth.

The development of the cover crop may be subject to several '''mowings''' ([[:Category:Sorghum|sorghum]] for example) to avoid lignification and seed setting.

The date of '''cover destruction''' varies depending on :

*the objectives of establishing the cover,
*the species (to avoid seed setting and lignification of tissues),
*the soil type (the cover decomposes faster or slower),
*and the soil preparation time for the next crop establishment.

The destruction technique ([[ploughing]], [[Crop residue shredding|shredding]], [[Stubble cultivator|stubble cultivation]], [[frost]], [[Roller|rolling]]) varies depending on the '''chosen species''', the '''season''', the '''available equipment''', the '''soil condition''' and the '''target objective'''.

Residues must be '''incorporated superficially into the soil (10-15 cm depth)''', immediately or after drying. To obtain a good seedbed and avoid the risk of [[Seedcorn maggot|seedcorn maggots]], fresh residues should not be incorporated. A delay of 2 months before planting an industrial vegetable is necessary. For [[biofumigation]] purposes, residue incorporation must be immediate.

==Application of the technique to...==
{{smiley|1=positive}} '''All [[:Category:Crops|crops]] : ''' Easily generalizable

The technique can be used both under shelter and in open field. All crops can be concerned depending on intercrop periods.

{{smiley|1=positive}} '''All soil types : ''' Easily generalizable

Cover crops can be established in all [[:Category:Soil types|soil types]] and in all [[regions]] if the species and technical itinerary are adapted. However, field conditions must be considered in species choice, both climatically (risks of [[drought]], frost, heavy rain…) and regarding pH, texture and management (irrigation…).

{{smiley|1=positive}} '''All [[climatic contexts]] : ''' Easily generalizable

Cover crops can be established in all soil types and in all [[:Category:Regions|regions]] if the species and technical itinerary are adapted. However, field conditions must be considered in species choice, both climatically (risks of [[:Category:Drought|drought]], frost, heavy rain…) and regarding pH, texture and management (irrigation…).

==Regulations==

In vulnerable zones (nitrate directive) :

*establishment of a cover crop is mandatory; check sowing dates;
*for [[legumes]] in pure or mixed culture, check prohibitions and environmental contracts;
*regional regulations regarding cover destruction dates must be checked.

==Effects on the sustainability of the cropping system==

==="Environmental" criteria===
{{smiley|1=positive}} '''Effect on air quality : ''' Increasing

*phytosanitary emissions decreasing

{{smiley|1=positive}} '''Effect on water quality : ''' Increasing

*nitrogen and [[phosphorus]] discharge into water : decreasing
*pesticide discharge decreasing

{{smiley|1=negative}} '''Effect on fossil resource consumption : ''' Increasing

*Fossil energy consumption increasing : cover establishment and destruction require more fuel than maintaining bare soil during intercrop 

==="Agronomic" criteria===
{{smiley|1=neutral}} '''[[Productivity]] : ''' Variable

Generally, if practiced under good conditions, this technique improves the regularity and uniformity of the following crop. However, species from the Poaceae family may cause [[Understanding and avoiding nitrogen hunger|nitrogen hunger]] during their decomposition.

{{smiley|1=positive}} '''Soil fertility : ''' Increasing

Introducing a [[cover crop]] during intercrop allows storage of [[Soil organic matter|organic matter]], carbon and nitrogen in the soil, thus enhancing fertility. It also promotes soil biological activity and improves soil health depending on the species chosen. Moreover, this technique limits weed development, [[Soil erosion|erosion]], [[Soil crusting|crusting]] and soil structure degradation.

{{smiley|1=neutral}} '''Functional [[Biodiversity]] : ''' Variable

Alternation of families between intercrop covers and crops allows better regulation of bio-aggressors and complementarity between effects of different species. [[:Category:Auxiliaries|Auxiliaries]], [[:Category:Pollinators|pollinators]] and soil fauna can be favored by the cover presence, variably depending on the species chosen. However, soil [[auxiliaries]] may be disturbed by shredding and burying the cover crop at destruction.

Furthermore, some species have risks of regrowth or favor certain bio-aggressors.

==="Economic" criteria===

{{smiley|1=negative}} '''Operational costs : ''' Increasing

Increase in operational and mechanization costs depending on the species planted and sowing and destruction techniques

{{smiley|1=negative}} '''Mechanization costs : ''' Increasing

{{smiley|1=neutral}} '''Margin : ''' Variable

Fertilizer costs can be limited. Production and regularity of the following crop can be improved, hence a potential positive effect.

==="Social" criteria===

{{smiley|1=negative}} '''Working time : ''' Increasing

Increase in mechanized work and overall working time for seedbed preparation, establishment and destruction of the cover.

{{smiley|1=negative}} '''Peak period : ''' Increasing

Work to be planned during the intercrop period.

==Favored or disadvantaged organisms==

===[[Bioagressors]] favored===
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|-
|[[Snail]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[pest]], [[predator]] or parasite
|Intercrop covers can serve as shelters for [[snails]]
|-
|[[Slug]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[pest, predator or parasite]]
|Intercrop covers can serve as shelters for slugs (e.g. [[rye]] and [[clovers]])
|-
|[[Nematode (bioagressor)]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[:Category:Pest, predator or parasite|pest, predator or parasite]]
|Certain Brassicaceae species ([[mustard]], forage radish) maintain [[nematode]] populations in the soil (notably [[Meloidogyne]] sp.)
|-
|[[Flea beetle]]
| class="text-center" |MEDIUM
| class="text-center" |pest, predator or parasite
|Many Brassicaceae species usable as intercrop covers are host plants for flea beetles ([[:Category:Mustard|mustard]], [[rapeseed]], [[turnip]], forage radish, rutabaga…)
|-
|[[Rhizoctonia solani|brown Rhizoctonia]]
| class="text-center" |
| class="text-center" |[[pathogen]] ([[bioagressor]])
|Certain Brassicaceae species are host plants for some [[Rhizoctonia]] species (mustard, [[:Category:Rapeseed|rapeseed]], [[:Category:Turnip|turnip]], [[rutabaga]]...)
|-
|[[Rodent]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |pest, predator or parasite
|Intercrop covers can serve as shelters for rodents, except when made with some species toxic to rodents (e.g. [[bird's-foot trefoil]])
|-
|[[Sclerotinia]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[pathogen (bioagressor)]]
|Certain [[Fabaceae]] species are host plants for some Sclerotinia species ([[faba bean]], [[vetch]], vetchling, [[forage pea]], [[clover]], [[lentil]]...) as well as some brassicas (Chinese radish) and [[sunflower]]
|-
|[[Thrips of vegetable crops]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |pest, predator or parasite
|Some intercrop plants can favor early development of [[thrips]] ([[phacelia]], sweet clover)
|-
|[[Virus]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[pathogen (bioagressor)]]
|Some intercrop plants can be reservoirs of [[viruses]] (phacelia hosts [[:Category:Virus|viruses]] [[BYV]], BMYV, PVY; [[buckwheat]] hosts [[CMV]] virus)
|}

===Disfavored bioagressors===
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|-
|[[Weeds]]
| class="text-center" |MEDIUM
| class="text-center" |weeds
|Some intercrop plants can have allelopathic effects on weeds (certain sorghum varieties). When vegetables are planted directly in the intercrop cover, it can have a repellent effect against flea beetles.
|-
|[[Nematode (bioagressor)]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |pest, predator or parasite
|Some intercrop plants can act as trap plants for nematodes (certain sorghum varieties for example)
|-
|[[Flea beetle]]
| class="text-center" |MEDIUM
| class="text-center" |pest, predator or parasite
|Some intercrop plants can prevent flea beetle establishment in crops (phacelia)
|-
|[[Pythium]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |pathogen ([[:Category:Bioagressor|bioagressor]])
|Use of intercrop plants that are not hosts of pythiaceous fungi can prevent [[pythium]] sp persistence in soil
|-
|[[Rhizoctonia solani|brown Rhizoctonia]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[:Category:Pathogen (bioagressor)|pathogen (bioagressor)]]
|Use of intercrop plants that are not hosts of rhizoctonia can prevent persistence of this bioagressor in soil
|-
|[[Rodent]]
| class="text-center" |MEDIUM
| class="text-center" |pest, predator or parasite
|Some species like [[bird's-foot trefoil]] are toxic to rodents
|-
|[[Sclerotinia]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |pathogen (bioagressor)
|Use of intercrop plants that are not hosts of [[sclerotinia]] can prevent persistence of this bioagressor in soil
|}

===[[:Category:Auxiliaries|Favored auxiliaries]]===
{|
!Organism
! class="text-center" |Impact of the technique
! class="text-center" |Type
!Details
|-
|[[Spiders]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[Natural enemies of bioagressors]]
|Dense intercrop covers (grasses and legumes for example) can favor development of [[carabid beetles]], [[rove beetles]] and [[spiders]]
|-
|[[Functional soil bacteria]]
| class="text-center" |
| class="text-center" |[[Functional soil organisms]]
|Intercrop covers stimulate soil microbial life
|-
|[[Predatory and granivorous carabids]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |[[:Category:Natural enemies of bioagressors|Natural enemies of bioagressors]]
|Dense intercrop covers (grasses and legumes for example) can favor development of carabid beetles, [[:Category:Rove beetles|rove beetles]] and [[:Category:Spiders|spiders]]
|-
|[[Mycorrhizae and functional soil fungi]]
| class="text-center" |
| class="text-center" |[[:Category:Functional soil organisms|Functional soil organisms]]
|Intercrop covers stimulate soil microbial life
|-
|[[Rove beetles]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |Natural enemies of bioagressors
|Dense intercrop covers (grasses and legumes for example) can favor development of carabid beetles, rove beetles and spiders
|-
|[[Earthworms]]
| class="text-center" |HIGH
| class="text-center" |Functional soil organisms
|Intercrop covers that do not secrete toxic substances into the soil favor [[earthworms]]
|}

=5. For further information=

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00004384_pdf.pdf Choosing and succeeding with your cover crop during intercrop in organic farming]-Ghesquière J., Cadillon A, ITAB, Technical brochure, 2012

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00005380_pdf.pdf Species characteristics - Cover crop during intercrop in organic farming]-Cadillon A. et al., ITAB, Technical brochure, 2013

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00005063_pdf.pdf Green manures in organic market gardening]-Mazollier C., Vedie H., GRAB - ITAB, Technical brochure, 2008

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00004719_pdf.pdf Cover crops, superficial techniques, Organic farming and Agroforestry]-GABB 32, 2012, Page 25 : cover crops in market gardening

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00004728_pdf.pdf Practical guide for designing vegetable cropping systems economical in phytosanitary products - Help sheet A3 : Characteristics of intercrop covers]-Launais M., Bzdrenga L., Estorgues V., Faloya V., Jeannequin B., Lheureux S., Nivet L., Scherrer B., Sinoir N., Szilvasi S., Taussig C., Terrentroy A., Trottin-Caudal Y., Villeneuve F. Ministry of Agriculture, French Agency for Biodiversity, GIS PIClég, Publication, 2014

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00005751_pdf.pdf Alternative weeding in market gardening - Preventive measures]-Ferrier J-D. [[Chamber of Agriculture]] of Ain, Technical brochure, 2016. See page 11

*[https://geco.ecophytopic.fr/documents/20182/21720/upload_00005760_pdf.pdf Intermediate crops]-[[:Category:Chambers of Agriculture|Chambers of agriculture]] Burgundy, Technical brochure, 2015

==Appendices==
{{Pages liées}}
{{Est complémentaire des techniques
|1= Establishing catch crops or double cropping
| 2= Establishing legumes during intercrop}}
{{S'applique aux cultures
|1= Vegetable crops}}
{{Favorise les bioagresseurs
|1= Snail
| 2= Slug
| 3= Nematode (bioagressor)
| 4= Flea beetle
| 5= Brown Rhizoctonia
| 6= Rodent
| 7= Sclerotinia
| 8= Thrips of vegetable crops
| 9= Virus}}
{{Favorise les auxiliaires
|1= Spiders
| 2= Functional soil bacteria
| 3= Predatory and granivorous carabids
| 4= Mycorrhiza
| 5= Mycorrhizae and functional soil fungi
| 6= Rove beetles
| 7= Earthworms}}
{{Défavorise les bioagresseurs
|1= Weeds
| 2= Nematode (bioagressor)
| 3= Flea beetle
| 4= Pythium
| 5= Brown Rhizoctonia
| 6= Rodent
| 7= Sclerotinia}}
{{#set: Import GECO le = 01/02/2021}}
<references />
[[fr:Introduire un couvert végétal d'interculture en production légumière]]
[[de:Zwischenfruchtbegrünung_in_der_Gemüseproduktion_einführen]]
[[el:Εισαγωγή_ενδιάμεσης_φυτοκάλυψης_στην_λαχανοκομική_παραγωγή]]
[[es:Introducir_una_cobertura_vegetal_de_intercultivo_en_la_producción_de_hortalizas]]
[[fi:Vihannetuotannossa_viljelykierron_kasvipeitteenvaihtoehdon_käyttöönotto]]
[[hu:Köztes_növényi_fedőnövény_bevezetése_zöldségtermesztésben]]
[[it:Introdurre_una_copertura_vegetale_di_intercoltura_nella_produzione_orticola]]
[[nl:Invoeren_van_een_dekgewas_tussen_teelten_in_groenteteelt]]
[[pl:Wprowadzenie_okrywy_roślinnej_pomiędzy_uprawami_w_produkcji_warzyw]]
[[pt:Introduzir_uma_cobertura_vegetal_de_entressafra_na_produção_de_legumes]]
[[ar:إدخال_غطاء_نباتي_بين_المحاصيل_في_الإنتاج_الخضري]]

Rotary hoe

2026-02-18T13:05:52Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Matériel
| Nom = Rotary hoe
| Image = Houe rotative.jpg
| ImageCaption = Rotary hoe
| Type de production = Field crops
| Mots-clés = Weeding
}}
The rotary hoe is a mechanical [[weeding]] tool used in open fields. It consists of star-shaped wheels mounted on a spring-loaded arm, equipped with fingers ending in a spoon-shaped tip.

 

==Operating principles==
By penetrating the soil, the spoons dig, loosen, uproot, and cover the aerial parts.

This tool can be used in open fields on many [[crops]] such as [[wheat]], [[sunflower]], [[sorghum]], [[maize]], [[barley]], [[soybean]], [[rapeseed]], [[bean]], and seed-bearing plants…

The rotary hoe is a simple-to-use tool that requires few adjustments. The aggressiveness of the tool largely depends on the travel speed and the working depth of the soil (the higher the pressure of the wheels on the soil, the more aggressive the hoe). The hoe is preferred on crusted soils for its crust-breaking function.

==Tool characteristics==
The rotary hoe consists of star-shaped wheels spaced 7 to 9 cm apart, with spoon-shaped ends that dig, uproot, and throw [[weeds]]. As a mechanical [[weeding]] tool used in open fields, like the [[harrow]], it allows “blind” weeding, post-sowing before crop emergence, but it should not be used during the delicate crop emergence stage. Also called “'''crust breaker'''”, the rotary hoe breaks the [[Soil crusting|crust]], particularly useful in [[loamy]] soils of the [[boulbène]] type.

{{youtube|id=https://youtu.be/uElGjpbzaew}}

[https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9613-arvarticle.html?region= '''To learn more on the subject''']

 

==Usage==
The rotary hoe is passed at a shallow depth, about 2 cm, over the entire crop surface. Few adjustments are needed to use a rotary hoe. The main factor affecting the tool's effectiveness is the forward speed. For effectiveness, a rotary hoe pass must be done at a speed of at least 10 km/h, up to 15 km/h: at this speed, the rotation of the star wheels is optimal and the uprooting of [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]] is maximal. Its work rate is therefore high: from 5 to 8 ha/h depending on speed but also on the tool's width (generally from 3 m to 9 m).

Another adjustment to optimize aggressiveness is the penetration depth of the spoons. It can be adjusted using gauge wheels and/or depth wheels, pressure springs, or by placing weights on the frame. However, a major drawback of this tool is its low effectiveness on developed weeds, compared to the [[harrow]], especially the spring-tooth harrow. Indeed, it is difficult for a rotary hoe to uproot weeds that have passed the 2-3 leaf stage. Its combination with the [[:Category:Harrow|spring-tooth harrow]] is therefore interesting, since the crust of [[soil crusting]] hinders the passage of the latter, the teeth possibly sliding on the surface of a crusted soil and not penetrating enough to weed. The spring-tooth harrow is also more aggressive on more developed weeds, so it can be used after a first crust-breaking pass with the rotary hoe, for example “blind”.

===Effectiveness depending on weed development stage===
{{Image | Image = Houe rotative efficacite stade adventices.jpg | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Largeur = 600px | Légende = Effectiveness of the rotary hoe depending on the weed development stage}}

===Usage ranges===
{{Image | Image = Houe rotative plages utilisation.jpg | Alignement = Center | Cadre = True | Largeur = 800px | Légende = Usage ranges of the rotary hoe}}

==Strengths and weaknesses==

=== Strengths ===

* Few adjustments
* Versatile tool
* High work rate: 5-8 ha/h
* Usable on many crops
* Breaks soil crust
* Wide spectrum of effectiveness on weed seedlings
* Economical and low maintenance
* Little sensitivity to plant debris
* Row weeding
* Usable in windy conditions
* Avoids selection of herbicide-resistant [[herbicides]]-resistant weeds

=== Weaknesses ===

* Short intervention periods relative to weed development
* Ineffective on developed weeds and [[perennials]]
* Requires well-leveled soil preparation
* Low effectiveness in presence of stones or surface residues
* Requires power (20 to 25 hp/m)
* Sometimes delicate timing of interventions

===Example of rotary hoe use according to crops excluding “blind” passes, possible post-sowing pre-emergence===
'''1. Winter [[cereals]]'''

✓ Autumn or late winter: stage 1-3 leaves

✓ Late winter - early spring: tillering

'''2. [[Faba bean]]'''

✓ Stage 2-4 leaves

✓ Stage 6-8 leaves

'''3. [[Maize]] - Sorghum'''

✓ Stage 3 leaves

✓ Stage 5-6 leaves

'''4. Soybean'''

✓ Stage first unifoliate leaves

✓ Stage first trifoliate leaves

'''5. Sunflower'''

✓ Cotyledon stage (caution, sensitive stage for sunflower: do not exceed 10 km/h)

✓ First leaf pair

== Selection criteria ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Points of attention
!Comments
|-
|The '''frame''' can be mechanically foldable (small widths) or hydraulic (U or portfolio/double effect)
|Hydraulic folding has a significant impact on price but is essential from 4.5 m width onwards
|-
|The '''traction power''' is important and must be related to the '''optimal effective speed''' of the tool
|The traction demand is '''20 hp per linear meter'''. The tractor must be able to quickly reach 16 km/h, otherwise effectiveness will not be optimal.
Hatzenbichler rotary hoes are less demanding in terms of speed, traction demand is lower.
Low-pressure tires allow driving on maize up to the 4-leaf stage.
|-
|'''Hydraulic adjustment''' of the wheel pressure on the soil
|Interesting criterion generating an additional cost (5000 to 6000)
|-
|'''Spacing between two wheels'''
|This criterion is mainly important to have the '''maximum worked surface'''. Too narrow spacing can cause blockages on stony soil or with significant residues on balance-arm systems.
|-
|'''Shape of the wheel ends'''
|Prefer the shape of '''spoon-shaped teeth'''.
Reversed wheels require less speed and thus less power but tend to break maize.
|-
|The '''weight of the tools''' ranges from 1.35 t to 2.4 t
|This criterion is important: the heavier the rotary hoe, the better the wheels will penetrate the soil, especially on crusted soil
|-
|Matching tractor track width and power
|Keep a '''sufficient safety margin''' between the tractor wheel and the crop considering the high working speed.
|}

== Different models ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Manufacturer
!Model
!Minimum width
!Maximum width
!Type of rotary hoe
!Spoon orientation
!Reference price (for a 6m rotary hoe)
!Details
|-
|Yetter
|HR Yetter
|3 m
|12 m
|Independent arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€16,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/82e98b59-a3ef-4877-a44a-b16a362ce0ca/ Details]
|-
|Agronomic
|HR Agronomic
|3.2 m
|6 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€27,500
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/083c089b-bf76-43a7-a490-22798afa554c/ Details]
|-
|APV
|Rotary Crusher
|6 m
|12 m
|Independent arm
|Unknown
|€23,600
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/f3eaca55-d62e-498c-ab0c-d6b7e9523402/ Details]
|-
|Agrokraft
|Stern
|3 m
|12 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€20,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/d967f163-0156-4f68-bf8f-e6f1bdc301d7/ Details]
|-
|Pöttinger
|Rotocare
|6.6 m
|12.4 m
|Independent arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/63f87d1b-5dd3-4be2-9968-a52bbb016339/ Details]
|-
|Ferju-Gourdin
|HR Rotario
|3 m
|6.3 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€25,440
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/0b976089-0f81-4f47-bfe0-871ee7225ede/ Details]
|-
|Eurotechnics
|Rotaking
|3 m
|12.4 m
|Independent arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€19,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/e9895f4a-81e8-4f2a-8991-b02701e19533/ Details]
|-
|ETR AVT
|HR ETR AVT
|3 m
|9 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/832ce99c-d8d9-441a-8a17-f922d7cb4244/ Details]
|-
|Spedo
|HR Spedo
|2.6 m
|6.1 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€15,500
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/97599f77-4a09-4038-9c10-18ea35a8117a/ Details]
|-
|Agrifarm
|HR Bio Plus
|3 m
|24 m
|Independent arm
|Unknown
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/ef2690ed-9caa-4b2b-9cae-18ecd8e88a27/ Details]
|-
|Badalini
|Romeo
|3 m
|7.2 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/ef23eb10-b47c-4ff7-937f-7e810b65400e/ Details]
|-
|Hatzenbichler
|HR Hatzenbichler
|3.3 m
|12.2 m
|Balance arm
|Back attacks the soil
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/288ed41d-9276-4847-9eed-9c92ecc3fc7d/ Details]
|-
|Leroch Distribution
|H-roto
|3 m
|12 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€10,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/b18dffea-ad65-4796-9764-74f3a5861caa/ Details]
|-
|Özdöken
|Rotokul K620
|4.2 m
|6.2 m
|Independent arm
|Unknown
|€18,600
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/a39be1b8-e300-4dd9-88cb-a54fd8cd3018/ Details]
|-
|Conpexim
|Astra 2
|3 m
|6 m
|Balance arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€13,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/4bae6a69-eed0-44c4-bdc4-9a3951bc5c0a/ Details]
|-
|Carré
|Rotanet control
|4.8 m
|10.3 m
|Independent arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€39,100
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/983d7538-229c-4e8c-a023-303a950b729e/ Details]
|-
|Carré
|Rotanet
|3 m
|12.4 m
|Independent arm
|Tip attacks the soil
|€16,900
|[https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/fiche/de19746d-793a-4e90-9189-771753712781/ Details]
|}

==Cost per hectare==
Equipment + tractor + labor: €10/ha (4.5 m tool on 200 ha/year).

 

'''Article written with the support of:'''

{{Image | Image = Logos fiches materiels ravageurs CRAO.png | Largeur = 400px}}

 

==Sources==

* [https://ariege.chambre-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/Occitanie/063_Inst-Ariege/Documents/AB/Lettres_bio/2019/lettrebio-juillet2019-web.pdf Organic letter July 2019 - Chamber of Agriculture of Ariège]
* [https://occitanie.chambre-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/National/FAL_commun/publications/Occitanie/Agroenvironnement/RecueilDEPHY-FG-CRAO2019.pdf DEPHY-FG-CRAO2019 Collection]
* [https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9613-arvarticle.html?region= Rotary hoe - Arvalis Infos]
* Opti'Mat: https://optimat.org/outil/houe-rotative/
* Agro Transfert: http://www.agro-transfert-rt.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/La_houe_rotative.pdf

==See also==

[[Category:Animated soil tool]]
[[Category:Mechanical weeding tool]]
[[en:Rotary hoe]]
[[fr:Houe rotative]]
[[es:Azada rotativa]]
[[it:Erpice rotante]]
[[de:Rotationshacke]]
[[el:Σβάρνα περιστροφική]]
[[nl:Rotorkopeg]]
[[hu:Rotációs kapa]]
[[pl:Glebogryzarka]]
[[fi:Jyrsin]]
[[pt:Enxada_rotativa]]
[[ar:المحراث_الدوري]]

Chain harrow

2026-02-18T13:04:32Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Matériel
| Nom = Chain harrow
| Image = image_herse__trille.jpg
| ImageCaption = Chain harrow
| Type de production = Field crops, Market gardening
| Type de matériel = Non-powered soil tool
| Mots-clés = Weeding
}}
The [[harrow]] chain harrow is a tool for [[Mechanical weeding in the open field - Chain harrow|mechanical weeding]] in the open field. It is composed of articulated panels to follow the terrain, equipped with long flexible teeth spaced 2 to 3 cm apart.

 

==Operating principle==
The flexible teeth vibrate as the tool advances, uprooting and injuring the [[weeds]].

This tool can be used in the open on many [[crops]] such as [[wheat]], [[sunflower]], [[sorghum]], [[corn]], [[barley]], [[soybean]], [[rapeseed]], [[bean]], seed bearer....
 

==Mode of action==
The [[:Category:Harrow|chain harrow]] uproots and covers the aerial parts. It works at about 2 cm depth
{{Image | Image = Herse etrillle dents.jpg | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Légende = Two different shapes of chain harrow teeth}}
(or even 3-4 cm in raised soil) independently of the crop rows and thus allows [[weeding]] over the entire surface. Its flexible teeth vibrate with the tool's advancement and uproot the [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]] by vibration and impact. These teeth, spaced 2 to 3 cm apart, can be straight or curved.

Curved teeth offer better aggressiveness than straight teeth but are less suitable for very stony soils. They are mounted on different independent panels that allow good adherence to the terrain and good tracking of its heterogeneities. The diameter and length of the teeth must also be chosen at purchase according to aggressiveness objectives.

==Settings and aggressiveness==
The aggressiveness of the [[:Category:Chain harrow|chain harrow]] results from the inclination of the teeth and their vibration, itself linked to the tool's forward speed. Settings are delicate because a compromise must be found between good selectivity for the crop in place and good effectiveness on weeds. The working depth is related to the gauge wheels. It should not be too high to avoid lifting weeds.

{{youtube|id=https://youtu.be/jfjfvq9Dr58}}

[https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9611-arvarticle.html?region= '''For more information on settings'''].

==Effectiveness and selectivity according to soil conditions==
The [[:Category:Chain harrow|chain harrow]], like other [[mechanical weeding]] tools, requires a drained, leveled, and compacted soil to work effectively. It is preferred on stony soils, as its effectiveness is not impaired there. However, it is ineffective alone on crusted soils because its teeth cannot penetrate the soil. The soil should also not be too cloddy to avoid covering crop seedlings with clods, and there should not be too much plant debris because the [[:Category:Chain harrow|chain harrow]] tends to rake.
 

==Effectiveness against weeds==
The [[:Category:Chain harrow|chain harrow]] is not very effective on [[perennials]] (it can nevertheless weaken [[field bindweed]] and [[hedge bindweed]] with repeated passes). It is only effective on small weeds (50 to 70% effectiveness according to ACTA, 2011). They must be at the "white filament" stage (germinating), cotyledons or even 2-3 leaves.

{{Image | Image = Herse etrille efficacite stade adventices.jpg | Alignement = Right | Largeur = 600px | Légende = Effectiveness of the chain harrow according to the weed development stage | Cadre = True}}
 

==Selectivity regarding the crop in place==
This tool is generally suitable for all [[:Category:Crops|crops]] but not at all stages of their development. The right time for mechanical weeding is determined among other things by the crop stage. The tool must not weaken the crop in place and should therefore be used at stages where the crop is less sensitive to the tool's work (tillering of [[cereals]], 2-4 leaf stage of other crops). It is still recommended to increase sowing densities by 10% in anticipation of plant losses caused by the tool's passage. At early stages (in raised soil then after the first leaves appear), it is preferable to use the [[Rotary hoe]] then the [[:Category:Chain harrow|chain harrow]] which offer better selectivity than the [[Cultivator]]. After these early crop stages, the chain harrow will only be effective on new weed seedlings.

===Usage ranges===
{{Image | Image = Herse etrille plages utilisation.jpg | Légende = Usage ranges of the chain harrow | Cadre = True | Largeur = 900px}}

==Strengths and weaknesses==

=== Strengths ===

* Versatile tool
* Wide spectrum of effectiveness
* High work rate
* Lower purchase and operating cost
* Low maintenance
* Usable in windy conditions
* Effective on stony soils
* Weeds in the open field
* Avoids selection of herbicide-resistant [[herbicides]]-resistant weeds
* Power 10 to 12 hp/m

=== Weaknesses ===

* Ineffective on developed weeds and on [[:Category:Perennials|perennials]]
* Requires well-leveled soil preparation
* Low effectiveness in presence of crusted [[crusting]], prefer the [[Rotary hoe]]
* Frequent clogging in presence of surface plant debris
* Sometimes delicate settings

==Cost per hectare==
Equipment + tractor + labor: €9/ha (12 m tool on 200 ha/year).

== Selection criteria ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Points to consider
!Comments
|-
|The '''frame can be mechanically foldable''' (small widths) or '''hydraulically foldable''' (U or portfolio/double effect)
|'''Hydraulic folding has a significant impact on price''' but is practically '''essential from 6 m width upwards'''
|-
|The '''adjustment of the teeth attack angle''' (aggressiveness) can be done '''manually''' by a lever or '''hydraulically''' from the tractor cab
|This criterion particularly affects the price
|-
|'''Length of teeth'''
|From 380 mm to 600 mm.
Long teeth in crusted soils risk misalignment
|-
|'''Tractor lifting capacity'''
|Ensure sufficient lifting force (weight of a 12 m harrow = up to 2t)
|-
|Power requirement
|'''7 hp/meter linear''' for '''spring crops''' (pay attention to tractor track width) and '''10-12 hp/meter linear''' for '''cereals'''
|-
|The '''diameter of the teeth''' is generally 6-7 mm, with optional 8 mm teeth
|An 8 mm diameter will be too aggressive for spring crops
|-
|Use on permanent pasture
|To be '''avoided''' as ineffective and risk of deforming teeth
|-
|The '''spacing between 2 teeth''' represents the soil surface worked by the chain harrow
|Important criterion: the smaller this spacing, the larger the soil surface worked
|-
|'''Gauge wheels''': generally 4 from 9 m width
|They ensure good '''depth consistency''' of work. Acquiring an additional pair may be interesting for 12 m harrows.
|-
|Double teeth
|Double teeth, removable by pins, have '''greater fragility''' over time.
|-
|'''Tooth wear''': carbide teeth (usually optional) are more durable
|Criterion to consider for "abrasive" soils (clay with flint, stones)
|-
|'''Spring chain harrow'''
|Allows more demanding work because it offers:

* additional '''intervention ranges'''
* more '''precise settings'''
* use for '''specific crops''' (e.g., industrial vegetables) and on uneven soils
However, this machine is more expensive.
|}

== Different models of plate chain harrows ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Manufacturer
!Model
!Minimum width
!Maximum width
!Aggressiveness adjustment
!Reference price (for a 12 m plate chain harrow)
!Details
|-
|Steimer
|Natalia
|6 m
|12 m
|Manual
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/9ac9fe4c-e163-48b7-8c33-85fe18ecce25/ Detail]
|-
|Agronomic
|HE Agronomic
|1 m
|12.5 m
|Hydraulic
|€20,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/fabfb2de-7ec3-4d3f-b683-6a2d8d7309d5/ Detail]
|-
|UNIA
|Akcent
|6 m
|12 m
|Manual
|€10,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/a62aeb8a-26f0-4821-9450-755397457b4c/ Detail]
|-
|AGRImarque
|Chain harrow
|1.5 m
|12 m
|Manual
|€13,080
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/59096c54-ab3b-4be4-b1f6-1f02890fc300/ Detail]
|-
|APV
|AS
|3 m
|12 m
|Manual or hydraulic
|€14,380
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/9b449cb0-1389-439b-9018-8e4b4b1366c3/ Detail]
|-
|Agrokraft
|Tor
|3 m
|12 m
|Manual or hydraulic
|€13,500
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/0a056b1e-d6a2-467d-809a-0a01589c57ea/ Detail]
|-
|Agro-Factory II
|IZAK
|7.5 m
|12 m
|Manual
|€10,346
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/1658edc9-5730-479c-9be3-9e11f2071a27/ Detail]
|-
|ETR AVT
|HE ETR AVT
|1 m
|14 m
|Manual or hydraulic
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/3ddc247c-40c1-43be-9df0-4a46016bc7d1/ Detail]
|-
|Hatzenbichler
|Original harrow
|3 m
|15 m
|Manual or hydraulic
|€18,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/28843aef-bce9-4b53-854a-70ac25458335/ Detail]
|-
|Carré
|Sarclerse
|1.5 m
|12 m
|Manual or hydraulic
|€16,400
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/77c9fc21-c97e-4332-9486-91f0a4437df4/ Detail]
|-
|Quivogne
|HET
|3 m
|12 m
|Manual
|€15,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-plateau/fiche/d0b66051-21b2-4898-ad72-4ceea80c12b7/ Detail]
|}

== Different models of spring chain harrows ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Manufacturer
!Model
!Minimum width
!Maximum width
!Aggressiveness adjustment
!Reference price (for a 12 m spring chain harrow)
!Details
|-
|Agronomic
|Agronomic
|1 m
|12.5 m
|Hydraulic
|€25,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/f82aaa20-0085-46e2-af65-aed7c5c2a302/ Detail]
|-
|APV
|Vario
|1.7 m
|12.2 m
|Hydraulic
|€32,983
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/cb4b2e6c-ae47-4747-9c7c-772fbb7f9301/ Detail]
|-
|Pöttinger
|
|9 m
|12.2 m
|Hydraulic
|€27,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/7842f3c8-9b9d-4c8e-82cd-5e679495fa68/ Detail]
|-
|Lemken-Steketee
|Precision HE
|3 m
|15 m
|Manual and hydraulic
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/383f3ac6-6648-4269-8700-89a4c27b5057/ Detail]
|-
|Lemken-Steketee
|Thulit
|6 m
|12 m
|Unknown
|€39,900
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/3e4ec409-be1c-4428-aeb4-20c12783ec2f/ Detail]
|-
|ETR AVT
|HNG ETR AVT
|1.2 m
|15 m
|Hydraulic
|€25,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/6856a754-5883-43e7-9932-5161d44d90f8/ Detail]
|-
|Agrifarm
|Bio Profi
|3 m
|24 m
|Hydraulic
|€38,485
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/8fe66787-bde8-4fb9-bd9e-62c6890a41c3/ Detail]
|-
|Hatzenbichler
|"Original" Air Flow harrow
|1.5 m
|15 m
|Manual and hydraulic
|Unknown
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/cb4cbb63-8134-48ea-8104-901ca6958987/ Detail]
|-
|Carré
|Pressius
|1.8 m
|15.4 m
|Hydraulic
|€47,300
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/79582b81-ad6d-4cc1-ba7f-3d3b0197fed1/ Detail]
|-
|Horsch
|Cura ST
|2.3 m
|24.5 m
|Hydraulic
|€38,000
|[https://optimat.org/outil/herse-etrille-a-ressort/fiche/10fd4a32-6823-4d4c-8603-43422f549f0e/ Detail]
|}

==For more information on the chain harrow==

*[http://www.ile-de-france.chambagri.fr/pro77/rep-agronomie/agroequipement/files/160822_FicheHerse.pdf The chain harrow - Chamber of Agriculture of Ile de France]
*[https://nouvelle-aquitaine.chambres-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/Nouvelle-Aquitaine/094_Inst-Nouvelle-Aquitaine/Documents/Ecophyto/doc_techn_ecophyto/doc/PANNEAU_4_HERSE-ROTO_ETRILLE.pdf Mechanical weeding: focus on the chain harrow - Chamber of Agriculture of Nouvelle Aquitaine]
*[http://www.agro-transfert-rt.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/La_herse_%C3%A9trille.pdf The chain harrow - AgroTransfert]
*[https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/view-9611-arvarticle.html?region= Chain harrow - Arvalis]
*[https://nord-pas-de-calais.chambre-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/Hauts-de-France/028_Inst-Nord-Pas-de-Calais/Telechargements/Agriculture-biologique/Brochures-desherbage-herse-etrille.pdf Chain harrows descriptive sheet - Chamber of Agriculture Nord-Pas de Calais region]

==Videos==
{{youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ms4y4qba1l8}}

=== The chain harrow in market gardening ===
{{youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pr7Ac1YyGfs}}

'''Article written with the support of:'''

{{Image | Image = Logos fiches materiels ravageurs CRAO.png | Largeur = 400px}}

{{Agrilismat
| Objectif Agrilismat = Environmental protection
}}

==Sources==

*[https://www.arvalis-infos.fr/herse-etrille-adapter-l-outil-a-ses-besoins-@/view-9611-arvarticle.html Chain harrow - Arvalis Infos]
*[http://itab.asso.fr/downloads/desherb-meca/dm-brochure_culture-web.pdf Mechanical weeding of field crops - ITAB]
*[https://occitanie.chambre-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/National/FAL_commun/publications/Occitanie/Agroenvironnement/RecueilDEPHY-FG-CRAO2019.pdf DEPHY-FG-CRAO2019 collection]
*https://optimat.org/

==Appendices==

[[Category:Non-powered soil tool]]
[[Category:Mechanical weeding tool]]
[[Category:Inter-row tool]]
[[fr:Herse étrille]]
[[es:Rastrillo de púas]]
[[it:Erpice a denti]]
[[el:Αλωνιστική δρέπανο]]
[[nl:Verticuteerhark]]
[[hu:Kapa gereblye]]
[[pl:Zgrzebło do ziemi]]
[[fi:Jyrsinpiikki]]
[[pt:Grade de herse]]
[[ar:محراث_مِشط]]

Management of grass cover through permanent associated cover crops

2026-02-18T13:02:41Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Organisme=Centre National d'Agroécologie
|Programme=Conserwa
|Image=Couvert permanent de trèfle blanc.jpg
|ImageCaption=Issue du GIEE Magellan
|Type de production=Field crops
|Objectif=Weeds@ Soil regeneration
|Mots-clés=Cover crops, Permanent covers, Crop association, Relay covers, Intercropping
}}
Associated [[Cover crops|covers]] are '''plants of agronomic interest''' whose development cycle takes place partly or entirely during the period when '''the crop is in place'''. These covers are supposed to remain in place '''for several years''' (2 or 3) and ensure '''relay covers''' during intercrops but also provide services to [[:Category:Crops|cash crops]].

==Advantages==

===Competition with weeds===
The ability of a permanent cover to suppress [[weeds]] depends on its ability to '''occupy and cover the space before the weeds establish.'''

The competitive effect on the weed population is observed only from a '''soil coverage greater than 50% by the [[legumes]]''' of the permanent cover.

Beyond this threshold, the greater the coverage, the better the reduction in the proportion of weeds.

It is when '''80/85% colonization by legumes is reached that weeds are effectively controlled''' (less than 10%).
{{Image | Image = Relation entre la couverture du sol et les adventices.jpg|Caption = This graph is taken from the specific case of legumes in [[sunflower]].}}

{{Note|Among the three species tested (alfalfa 10 kg, bird's-foot trefoil 10 kg, white clover 3 kg), only alfalfa provided sufficient soil coverage to achieve weed control effectiveness comparable to the chemical weeding treatment.}}

{{Image | Image = Répartition adventice selon la quantité de luzerne .jpg
|Caption = Here too, an absence of weeds is observed when the cover is very developed. }}

'''The reduction of weeds is noticeable from 50% coverage but is significant only from 90%.'''

However, '''the less competitive the cover, the greater the diversity of weed species.''' Therefore, there is not necessarily a quantitative impact on weeds when coverage is below 50%, but there is a qualitative change.

{{Image | Image = Perte de rendement en fonction de la diversité d'adventices.png
|Caption = A correlation between the specific diversity of weeds within a plot and the yield losses associated with them has been established. <ref>J.STORKEY, P.NEVE.2018.What good is weed diversity? Weed Research</ref>}}

{{Note|The greater the diversity, the less the effects on the harvest are felt as shown in the graph.

'''The more developed the permanent cover, the less species diversity''' in the plot (cover + weeds) and the greater the competition and impact on crop yield.}}

==Disadvantages==

===Impact on crop yield===
Still on the same trial, when there is a cover, '''the performance of [[Sunflower|sunflowers]] is impacted''' as shown by all the characteristics evaluated in the table.

The species with the greatest impact on the crop is '''[[alfalfa]]''', on all points. This is because it provided the best coverage, 75% of the surface compared to 57% for [[clover]] and only 32% for [[bird's-foot trefoil]].

There is therefore a strong yield decrease when there is a cover or spontaneous grassing compared to a chemically weeded sunflower.

{{Image | Image = Impact des différents couverts sur la performance .png
|Caption = Overall, '''yield losses''' (15 q/ha in [[maize]] under permanent white clover cover) '''are caused by [[No-till under living cover|no-till under permanent cover]] practices for spring crops''' especially if soils are shallow and/or non-irrigated. }}

For '''winter crops''', it is '''easier to control [[permanent covers]] chemically or by mowing''' but if there is no intervention, yield losses are almost systematic.

==Conclusion==
When the cover is sufficiently developed (beyond the 80% vegetation coverage threshold) to allow '''effective and significant weed management''', it causes '''significant yield losses'''. '''To avoid this, covers are controlled''' by mowing or chemically but their competition with weeds is limited.

The major advantage of the permanent cover is '''during the intercrop period where it takes over from the crop immediately after harvest'''. The limitation of weed infestation during the intercrop is directly related to the biomass production of the permanent cover and the speed of development.

{{Image | Image = Biomasse des adventice en fonction de la biomasse du couvert.png | Frame = Yes |Caption = }}

==Sources==
This article was written by [[User:Jasmin Razongles|Jasmin Razongles]], agronomy engineering student in work-study at the [[Structure:Centre National d'Agroécologie|Centre National d'Agroécologie]].

<references />

{{Ajouter au projet|Conserwa}}
{{Pages liées}}
[[fr:Gestion de l’enherbement grâce aux couverts associés permanents]]
[[es:Manejo de la cubierta vegetal mediante cultivos asociados permanentes]]
[[it:Gestione dell’erba grazie alle coperture associate permanenti]]
[[de:Unkrautmanagement durch permanente Zwischenfrüchte]]
[[el:Διαχείριση της βλάστησης μέσω μόνιμων συνδεδεμένων καλυμμάτων εδάφους]]
[[nl:Beheer van begrazing met permanente bijbehorende bodembedekkers]]
[[hu:Állandó társult takarónövényekkel történő gyepgazdálkodás]]
[[pl:Zarządzanie zachwaszczeniem dzięki stałym roślinom okrywowym]]
[[fi:Pysyvien_yhdistettyjen_kasvinsuojuskasvien_käyttö_rikkakasvien_hallinnassa]]
[[pt:Gestão_da_vegetação_através_de_coberturas_associadas_permanentes]]
[[ar:إدارة_التغطية_النباتية_بفضل_الأغطية_النباتية_الدائمة_المرافقة]]

False seedbed, how effective is it?

2026-02-18T13:01:37Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Organisme=Structure:Centre National d'Agroécologie
| Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Déchaumage.jpg
| ImageCaption=Tractor performing false seedbed preparation
| Type de production=Field crops
| Objectif=Weeds
| Mots-clés=Mechanical weeding
}}
False seedbed preparation consists of '''stimulating weed emergence with superficial [[soil]] work to destroy them before the crop, thus reducing the seed bank'''. Its effectiveness depends on species and climatic conditions.

False seedbed preparation is used against '''annuals with low dormancy''' such as crop volunteers (oilseed rape, cereals), ryegrass, blackgrass, pansies, poppies, lamb's quarters, knotweeds, cleavers, chamomiles, …

{| class="wikitable small table-responsive"
|+Weed regulation options (infloweb)
|-
! | Weed
! | Diverse rotation
! colspan="2" | False seedbed (before next crop)
! | Sowing date shift (except oilseed rape)
! | Occasional plowing
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/panic-pied-de-coq Goosegrass]
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | In April
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/brome-sterile/ Brome grasses]
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #a6cf8d" | In summer and autumn
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/folle-avoine-avoine-sterile/ Wild oats]
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #ee7d31" | In October
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/ray-grass-ditalie/ Ryegrass]
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | Late summer-early autumn
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/vulpin-des-champs/ Blackgrass]
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | Late summer-early autumn
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/chenopode-blanc/ Lamb's quarters]
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | In April
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/coquelicot/ Poppy]
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #ee7d31" | In autumn
| style="background-color: #c01616; color: #c01616" | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/datura-stramoine/ Jimsonweed]
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #ee7d31" | In spring
| style="background-color: #c01616; color: #c01616" | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/geranium-disseque/ Geraniums]
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #a6cf8d" | Late August-early September
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/matricaire-camomille/ Chamomiles]
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #ee7d31" | Late summer
| style="background-color: #c01616; color: #c01616" | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/mercuriale-annuelle/ Annual mercury]
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | Spring
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/moutarde-des-champs/ Field mustard]
| style="background-color: #c01616; color: #c01616" | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | Before late spring crop
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/veronique-a-feuilles-de-lierre/ Ivy-leaved speedwell]
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d; color: #a6cf8d" | Good effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| style="background-color: #ee7d31; color: #ee7d31" | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
! | [https://www.infloweb.fr/veronique-de-perse/ Persian speedwell]
| style="background-color: #c01616; color: #c01616" | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| colspan="2" style="background-color: #f0e50d" | Late summer-early spring
| style="background-color: #c01616; color: #c01616" | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| style="background-color: #f0e50d; color: #f0e50d" | Medium / irregular effectiveness
|-
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
|-
| |
| |
| |
| style="background-color: #c01616" |
| | Null / not relevant effectiveness
| |
|-
| |
| |
| |
| style="background-color: #ee7d31" |
| | Insufficient / variable effectiveness
| |
|-
| |
| |
| |
| style="background-color: #f0e50d" |
| | Medium / irregular effectiveness
| |
|-
| |
| |
| |
| style="background-color: #a6cf8d" |
| | Good effectiveness
| |
|}

== Implementation ==

# '''Identify''' the weeds you want to eliminate to gather information on:

* their germination depth
* germination timing
* techniques that stimulate germination

# '''Soil preparation'''

* Work the surface (generally less than 5 cm deep but this can be deeper depending on the weeds) of a fresh, moist, and firmed soil (rolling may be relevant), as for preparing a seedbed.

The goal is to '''stimulate weed germination.'''

# '''Destroy''' the weeds chemically or mechanically; in the latter case, care must be taken not to work the soil deeply to avoid bringing new weed seeds to the surface.
# '''Sow the crop 2 - 3 weeks''' '''after the last false seedbed preparation''' without deep soil working.

'''Several false seedbeds can be done in succession''', it is then recommended to leave 2 to 3 weeks between each false seedbed and always keep the same soil working depth.

== Advantages ==

* '''Reduction of weed emergence potential''' thanks to the '''decrease of the seed bank''' in the soil.
* '''Possible reduction in the use of phytosanitary products'''.

== Limitations ==

* The success of the technique '''depends on climatic conditions.'''
* Does not '''allow control of perennials'''.
* Requires a '''sufficient intercrop period'''.

== What about weed emergence during the following crop? ==
False seedbed preparation certainly causes grasses to emerge and thus reduces the seed bank, but this '''does not guarantee a reduction in weed infestation afterwards'''.

This phenomenon is partly explained by the difference in magnitude between weeds emerging during the intercrop period (24 to 1600 plants/m²) and the number of seeds returned to the soil during a campaign (23,000 seeds/m²). It is easy to imagine that the number of seeds eliminated thanks to false seedbed preparation actually represents only a tiny fraction of the weed seed bank in the soil.

One solution would be to '''repeat several successive false seedbeds to exhaust the seed bank''', especially in particularly weedy fields. However, the reduction of the seed bank is nuanced by Merfield (2015), who estimates the potential impact of a false seedbed at 0.7% of the seed bank, considering that 10% of seeds are non-dormant at any time and that only 7% of these are in the top 3 cm of soil, i.e., in germination conditions. If false seedbeds are irrigated (40 mm/week), seed bank reduction is much more effective, 40% reduction with four successive false seedbeds versus 3% without irrigation.

== Cost of a false seedbed ==
A pass with an [[cultivator]] with independent discs costs about '''€25/ha''' (varies between €20 and €35/ha depending on the model).{{Image | Image =Tableau des coût de mécanisation.png| Légende = Costs of cropping operations<ref>Costs of cropping operations - Chambers of Agriculture - https://chambres-agriculture.fr/sinformer/nos-ressources/toutes-les-publications/publication/couts-des-operations-culturales-2</ref>}}

== Experimentation ==

=== False seedbed against ryegrass/blackgrass ===
Ryegrass and blackgrass emergence is higher after superficial work / false seedbed (here, [[rotary harrow]] at 5 cm) than after deep work (here, [[independent disc cultivator]] at 20 cm).

{{Image | Image = Levée de vulpin .png | Légende = Weed management during intercrop: false seedbed tested - Perspectives-agricoles.com 2019<ref name=":0">Weed management during intercrop: false seedbed tested - Perspectives-agricoles.com 2019 https://www.perspectives-agricoles.com/conduite-de-cultures/gestion-des-adventices-linterculture-le-faux-semis-au-banc-dessai</ref> | Alignement=Center}}

=== False seedbed before a spring crop ===
Spring false seedbed is fully justified; it allows a real reduction of weed pressure in the crop as shown in the graph below:{{Image | Image = Faux semis de printemps .png| Légende = ECOHERBI trial}}It is noted that there is no clear difference in effectiveness between the different modalities.

'''False seedbeds reduce weeds in the crop by a factor of 4''' compared to no false seedbed.

==Sources==

* Arvalis. 2022. Practicing false seedbed to reduce the seed bank in fields. [26/01/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/pratiquer-les-faux-semis-pour-diminuer-le-stock-semencier-des-parcelles
* Arvalis. 2022. Soil work: controlling weeds during intercrop. [26/01/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/pratiquer-les-faux-semis-pour-diminuer-le-stock-semencier-des-parcelles
* Bayer. 2021. False seedbed: an effective control method before sowing. [26/01/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/pratiquer-les-faux-semis-pour-diminuer-le-stock-semencier-des-parcelles
* Bayer. 2023. False seedbed, a real solution to control weeds. [26/01/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/pratiquer-les-faux-semis-pour-diminuer-le-stock-semencier-des-parcelles
* Réussir. 2023. What if we took advantage of summer to “false seed”? [26/01/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/pratiquer-les-faux-semis-pour-diminuer-le-stock-semencier-des-parcelles
{{Contributeurs de l'article|1=Jasmin Razongles}}
{{Pages liées}}
[[en:False seedbed, how effective is it?]]
[[es:Falso-trasplante]]
[[it:Semina falsa]]
[[de:Vorsaat]]
[[el:Προκαταρκτική σπορά]]
[[nl:Valse-zaden]]
[[hu:Átültetés nélküli vetés]]
[[pl:Przedsiewy]]
[[fr:Faux-semis]]
[[de:Vorsaat]]
[[el:Προκαταρκτική σπορά]]
[[es:Falso-trasplante]]
[[hu:Átültetés nélküli vetés]]
[[it:Semina falsa]]
[[nl:Valse-zaden]]
[[pl:Przedsiewy]]
[[fi:Esikasvatus]]
[[pt:Semeadura direta]]
[[ar:الزرع الجزئي]]

Weed Mowing

2026-02-18T13:00:14Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Fauche.jpg
| Objectif=Weeds
| Mots-clés=Weeding in arable crops, Meadows, Alternative to herbicides
}}

{{Pages liées}}

Mowing is a type of '''[[mechanical weeding]] that consists of cutting the aerial parts of weeds without uprooting them''' in order to prevent them from flowering and thus producing seeds. This technique requires '''regular passes''' in the plot to '''limit weed development by exhaustion'''.

The main goal of this method is to '''reduce the seed bank''' in the soil.

== Objectives of mowing ==

=== Reduce the seed bank ===
Cutting the aerial parts of weeds '''prevents flowering''', so the plant does not produce seeds for the following years.

=== Weaken the weed ===
After cutting, the weed must use its reserves to regrow, thus, '''by repeating mowings, the plant will become exhausted''', weaken and potentially disappear. This technique is relevant for '''[[perennial weeds]]'''.

=== Decrease weed-crop competition ===
Once the weed is cut, it captures less light, consequently, it will grow slower which will allow the '''crop to take over'''.

== Different techniques ==

=== Mowing ===
Mowing consists of cutting plants quite low, often with a [[mower]] or a [[mulcher]]. It is a fairly effective technique against '''[[annual weeds]]'''.

It is mainly used:

* on field edges
* during intercrops
* on [[temporary meadows]]

The main interest of mowing is to '''prevent seed set'''.

=== Lawn mowing ===
Lawn mowing is a regular cut at a constant height.

It is used:

* on [[cover crops]]
* on [[meadows]]
* on grassed areas

The main interest of lawn mowing is to '''maintain constant pressure on weeds'''.

=== [[Topping]] ===
Topping consists of '''cutting only the weed inflorescences that exceed the crop height with a topper'''. Therefore, the weeds must be taller than the crop ([[wild oats]], [[field mustard]], common ragweed…).

It is necessary to ensure that this mowing does not promote tillering of the weed which could have the opposite effect to the one expected.

The main interest of this targeted cut is to prevent weeds from dominating the crop. The effectiveness of the technique depends on local conditions and intervention windows.

== When to mow? ==
It is important to mow:

* '''before flowering''' to limit seed set
* when the '''plant is young''' to weaken it because it will have to mobilize its resources to regrow
* as soon as '''animals leave the [[pasture]]''' for refusal mowings. Alternating mowing and grazing is a good way to fight weeds.

The management mode depends on the weed, its location in the plot, and the soil nutrient status, for example, it is recommended to:

* fight [[dock]] by mowing before the stem appears and frequently
* fight [[thistles]]: mow before flowering, when the thistle reaches 15-20 cm tall, and do this 3 to 4 times a year to weaken the weed
* fight nettles: mow regularly

It is especially important to avoid cutting weeds when seeds are already formed to prevent their dispersal and to '''clean the equipment''' to avoid spreading seeds to different mowed sites.

It is important to '''repeat the intervention to “wear out” the weeds'''.

== Advantages ==

* '''Limit the use of chemical products'''.
* Interesting alternative on plots where '''weeds are resistant to [[herbicides]]'''.
* Method '''compatible''' with all other [[weeding]] strategies.

== Limitations ==

* '''Valorization''' of [[temporary meadow]] if the system is not in [[crop-livestock integration]].
* Seeds of some weed species are '''disseminated progressively''', which reduces the effectiveness of harvesting.
* Technique rarely effective alone to achieve total weed elimination, which requires '''time'''.

== Crops that can be mowed ==

* [[Vineyards]]
* Orchards
* Temporary and permanent meadows
* [[Forage crops]]
* Field edges.

== Sources ==

* ARVALIS. 2012. [[Organic farming]] - Managing weeds without herbicides. [06/02/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/maitriser-les-adventices-sans-recourir-aux-herbicides
* F. Boissinot, Vincent Bretagnolle, C.Jacques, Safia Mediene, Helmut Meiss, [[User:Nicolas Munier-Jolain|Nicolas Munier-Jolain]] and W. Rainer. 2020. Role of temporary meadows in weed flora management in cereal systems. [06/02/2026]. https://hal.science/hal-01019446v1/document
* Ludovic Bonin. 2021. Alternatives to glyphosate for perennial weed management. [06/02/2026]. https://ecophytopic.fr/alternatives-glyphosate/proteger/alternatives-au-glyphosate-pour-la-gestion-des-vivaces
* [[User:Bruno Chauvel|Bruno Chauvel]]. 2024. Alternatives to herbicide use: limiting the seed bank. [06/02/2026]. https://ecophytopic.fr/alternatives-glyphosate/prevenir/alternatives-lusage-dherbicides-limiter-le-stock-semencier
* Sébastien Crémer. 2014. Control of undesirable plants in meadows. [06/02/2026]. https://www.fourragesmieux.be/Documents_telechargeables/Lutte_contre_les_indesirables_en_prairie.pdf
* GECO. 2022. Weed management by mowing in [[tropical crops]]. [06/02/2026]. https://ecophytopic.fr/alternatives-glyphosate/proteger/gestion-de-lenherbement-par-la-fauche-en-cultures-tropicales

Antonio Monteiro. 2022. Weed Management. [06/02/2026]. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19814
[[de:Unkrautmähen]]
[[fr:Fauchage_des_adventices]]
[[de:Unkrautmähen]]
[[el:Κοπή_ζιζανίων]]
[[es:Siega_de_malezas]]
[[fi:Rikkakasvien_niitto]]
[[it:Taglio_delle_erbacce]]
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[[pt:Corte_de_ervas_daninhas]]
[[ar:جز العشب الضار]]

Effect of Wheat Sowing Date on Weed Infestation

2026-02-18T12:59:38Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Organisme=Centre National d'Agroécologie
|Programme=Conserwa
|Image=Céréales - Crédit photo @bubu1664.jpg
|ImageCaption=Wheat at the three-leaf stage
|Type de production=Cereal crops
|Objectif=Weeds
|Mots-clés=Weeds, Wheat, Early sowing, Late sowing
}}
The choice of the '''sowing date''' is an '''essential factor''' to consider for the '''success of the crop'''. Delaying the sowing of winter cereals by a few days compared to the usual periods can allow for '''better management of weed flora''' afterwards, especially '''grasses.'''

== Principle ==
The '''shift in sowing date allows''':

*'''To avoid the preferred germination period of [[Annual grasses|grasses]]''' if agro-climatic conditions are met (refined soil, rewetting of soils).
*'''To intervene after the dormancy break of blackgrass seeds''' and make them germinate before the sowing of [[wheat]].
*To '''position autumn chemical interventions under better conditions''' (soil generally wetter in November).

{{Image | Image = Cinétique.png | Légende = Graph showing the germination dynamics of blackgrass according to the sowing date based on accumulated temperatures (in degree days, DD)}}

[[Blackgrass|Blackgrass]] germinates about 150 DD (degree days) after superficial soil work. A sowing on September 25 is almost simultaneous with blackgrass germination. 100% of the population thus emerges at the same time as the crop. However, '''a shift to October 19 allows avoiding 50% of potential blackgrass''' and '''80% for a sowing on 11/3.'''

== Results of the practice ==
{{Image | Image = Comapraison.png | Légende = Comparison to Early sowing:

Arvalis trials over several years and different sites show a '''reduction of about 90% in the number of blackgrass and ryegrass per square meter for late sowing compared to early sowing.''' It is therefore '''strongly discouraged to practice early sowing on historically weedy fields.''' }}

{{Image | Image = Date de semis et vulpin.jpg | Légende = This graph illustrates the relevance of shifting the sowing date from the perspective of managing blackgrass and grasses in general. }}

The question now arises about feasibility and impact on yield.

{{Clear}}

== And the regulation of other weeds? ==
The practice of shifting sowing dates is '''really effective only against monocotyledons''' and differences in sensitivity are also observed within this category. '''Only the regulation of blackgrass and [[ryegrass]] is significant'''. Conversely, for the vast majority of dicotyledons (except [[goosefoots]]), the effect of the practice is not demonstrated or simply null.

{{Image|Image=Tableau récapitulatif.jpg|Légende=|Cadre = Yes}}

== Impact on yield ==
'''Delaying [[soft wheat]] sowing by 20 days compared to the optimal period has little impact on yield''' (on average, over 3 very contrasting climatic campaigns).

However, as seen, '''at +20 days, blackgrass density is reduced by 40%.'''

At +40 days, when pressure is reduced by 75%, yield loss is around 15 quintals.

{{Image|Image=Impact sur le rendement.jpg|Légende=|Cadre = Yes}}

== Feasibility ==
In general, from November onwards, '''the later the interventions, the greater the risk of being limited given the number of days when work is possible.'''

'''Feasibility level is highly dependent on local context and climatology.'''

Sowing at the end of October offers as many available days for intervention (days when the necessary good conditions for sowing are met) as mid-October.

However, '''late sowings''' (mid-November and later) '''reduce the number of days when fields can be accessed.''' If the number of hectares to be sown is large, it is advisable to '''prioritize the weediest fields for late sowing.'''

The same issue arises for late sowings regarding [[weed control]] interventions. The number of days available for post-emergence treatments may be limited; it is recommended to anticipate and plan for pre-emergence weed control.

== Conclusion ==
The '''shift''' remains a '''powerful lever to reduce the number of problematic weeds in winter cereals''' (notably with the emergence of resistance in blackgrass). To guarantee its benefit, it must be '''combined with optimal timing of [[chemical weed control]] from autumn''' (pre-emergence or early post-emergence). In heavily infested situations, at the system scale, it must be '''reinforced by other levers''' (rotation, soil work, false sowing…).

Delaying sowing by 20 days allows reducing the pressure of certain weeds (-40% blackgrass density on average) and thus their harmfulness while maintaining yield potential.

== Source ==
This article was written by [[Utilisateur:Jasmin Razongles|Jasmin Razongles]], agronomy engineering student in apprenticeship at the [[Structure:Centre National d'Agroécologie|Centre National d'Agroécologie]].

<references />
{{Pages liées}}
[[fr:Effet de la date de semis du blé sur le salissement]]
[[es:Efecto de la fecha de siembra del trigo sobre la infestación]]
[[it:Effetto della data di semina del grano sull'infestazione]]
[[de:Auswirkung des Aussaatdatums von Weizen auf die Unkrautentwicklung]]
[[el:Επίδραση της ημερομηνίας σποράς του σιταριού στη ρύπανση]]
[[nl:Effect van de zaaidatum van tarwe op de onkruidgroei]]
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[[pl:Wpływ daty siewu pszenicy na zachwaszczenie]]
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[[pt:Efeito_da_data_de_plantio_do_trigo_na_sujação]]
[[ar:تأثير_تاريخ_زراعة_القمح_على_التلوث]]

Basket weed remover

2026-02-18T12:59:09Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Basket.jpg
| Type de production=Market gardening@ Open field vegetables
| Objectif=Weeds
| Mots-clés=Mechanical weeding
}}

{{Pages liées}}

The '''basket weeder''' is a tool for [[mechanical weeding]] on '''[[:Category:Crops|row crops]]'''. It is used to '''combat small weeds in the inter-row at the white thread or cotyledon stages'''.

[[File:Figure-60-basket-weeder.gif]]

== Operation ==
The weeder consists of '''round metal baskets that rotate while rolling on the ground'''. These baskets:

* '''scrape the soil surface''', working at about 2 to 3 cm depth
* '''uproot''' small weeds
* '''only slightly displace the soil'''.

After passing this tool, the weeds are thus '''pulled out of the soil and dry''' in the sun.

The baskets can be mounted on a '''tractor-drawn, pushed, or mounted tool'''.

== Period of use ==
The basket weeder is effective on:

* '''young weeds'''
* a '''dry surface soil'''.

Generally, the tool is used '''before crop emergence''' or at early emergence.

== Suitable crops ==
This tool is suitable for '''[[market gardening]]''' and '''open field vegetable row crops'''.

== Settings ==
To work properly, it is necessary to adjust:

* the '''pressure of the baskets''' on the soil
* the '''forward speed'''
* and the '''spacing between the baskets''', so that it fits the inter-row.

== Advantages ==

* The tool can be used at '''relatively high speeds''' because it acts superficially and has little impact on the crop.
* Does not '''disturb the soil'''.
* '''Reduces the weed seed bank'''.

== Limitations ==

* '''Ineffective on large weeds'''.
* Requires '''good timing'''.
* '''Does not work on the row'''.
* Must be '''combined with other tools'''.

== Videos ==
{{Youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-8zqU4gWnQ}}

== Sources ==

* Greg Bowman. 2002. Steel in the field, a farmer’s guide to weed management tools. [09/02/2026]. <nowiki>https://www.sare.org/publications/steel-in-the-field/horticultural-crop-tools/basket-weeder/</nowiki>
* Werk tractors. Basket weeder. [09/02/2026]. <nowiki>https://www.werkrtractors.com/implements/basket-weeder</nowiki>
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[[fr:Désherbeur_à_panier]]
[[de:Korbschneider]]
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[[es:Desbrozadora_con_cesta]]
[[fi:Korikonekorjaaja_korilla]]
[[hu:Kosáras_gyomirtó]]
[[it:Diserbante_con_cestello]]
[[nl:Mandenvork]]
[[pl:Opryskiwacz_z_koszem]]
[[pt:Capinador_com_cesto]]
[[ar:جزازة_الأعشاب_بسلة]]

Laser weeding

2026-02-18T12:58:47Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Désherbage laser.jpg
| Mots-clés=Weed management, Weeding robot
}}

{{Pages liées}}

Laser [[weeding]] uses a '''powerful light beam to burn and kill weeds'''. The energy emitted by the laser is actually absorbed by the plant, causing a rapid increase in the internal temperature of the weed, then the '''plant proteins are denatured''', the '''plant cell membrane is destroyed''', and the '''plant tissues dehydrate'''. In conclusion, '''the weed loses its physiological functions which allows its elimination'''.

This method is very effective when the weed is '''young''' (from the cotyledon stage to “two leaves”) because the plant has fewer underground reserves to regrow after the burning of its aerial part. To optimize the absorption of energy by the plant molecules, mainly water and chlorophyll, the '''choice of wavelength is crucial'''.

== How laser weeding works ==
Laser weeding relies on three phases:

* '''perception''' which consists of '''collecting images and monitoring the robot's position''' in real time (using USB and binocular cameras)
* '''decision''', a process of '''analyzing and identifying''' the collected information (weeds, spatial organization of plots, etc.) thanks to a deep learning algorithm (YOLO, Faster R-CNN, CNN…)
* '''execution''', the final phase allowing to '''control the laser emission''' so that it is precise and effective.

== Types of laser ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Laser type
!CO2 Laser
!Blue Laser
!NIR/fiber Laser
|-
!Wavelength
|10,600 nm
|450 nm
|2000 nm
|-
!Advantages
|Very powerful

Effective on all types of plants
|Very precise

Small machine

Targeted area

Less expensive
|Heats the plant quickly
|-
!Limitations
|Large

Expensive

High consumption
|Less powerful

Slower
|Rarer

Expensive
|-
!When to use?
|Large [[:Category:Crops|crops]]

Large or [[perennial]] weeds
|Vegetables

Crops in tight rows

Young weeds
|Specialized use

Semi-industrial
|-
!Safety
|Requires more protection (class 4, dangerous for eyes)
|Less dangerous but glasses and precautions mandatory
|
|}

== Maintenance ==
Maintenance costs vary depending on the size of the machine, annual use, and model, however, maintenance always includes:

* cleaning optics (cameras, lenses)
* checking laser cooling
* software updates
* chassis and sensor maintenance

== Purchase cost of machines ==
Laser weeding machines are currently very expensive:

* the price depends on size and configuration; large-scale machines can cost over one million euros
* machines are available for rent starting at €1000/ha for the most compact models

In the short term, [[herbicides]] are cheaper; however, in the long term, depending on annual use of laser weeding and considering its benefits, this method can become cost-effective.

=== Main agricultural laser weeding machines on the market ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Model
!Description and features
!Laser technology / specificity
!Speed
!Images
|-
|LaserWeeder G2 (Carbon Robotics)
|Tractor-mounted / semi-mounted system

Submillimeter precision

Several sizes available
|Laser diode
|0.61-1.21 ha/h
|[[File:Laserweeder_G2.jpg|frameless]]
|-
|WeedBot Lumina
|High-precision laser weeder for vegetables / dense crops

Covers multiple rows

Precision about 2mm
|High-precision blue laser
|Up to 600 m/h
|{{Youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=V8mrEE0zeyw&embeds_referring_euri=https%3A%2F%2Fweedbot.eu%2F&embeds_referring_origin=https%3A%2F%2Fweedbot.eu&source_ve_path=Mjg2NjY}}
|-
|Escarda Technologies
|Towed machine with multiple lasers

AI for recognition from 3mm
|Lightweight and modular system
|
|[[File:Escarda 2.jpg|frameless]]
|}

== Advantages ==

* No soil disturbance.
* No environmental impact since the laser leaves only ashes behind.
* Reduces manual labor.
* Targeted.

== Limitations ==

* High cost.
* Sometimes slow working speed.
* The machine consumes energy.
* Less effective on large weeds.
* Less effective on weeds with deep roots.

== Regulation and safety ==
Laser machines are classified into 4 categories according to their hazard level. Laser weeding is generally done using high-performance '''class 4''' machines; farmers must then '''be trained in laser safety''' and wear appropriate '''protective glasses'''.
{{Vidéo|Vidéo=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aN4bVKea7h0}}

== Sources ==

* Christian Andreasen, Najmeh Salehan and Eleni Vlassi. 2024. Laser weeding: opportunities and challenges for couch grass (Elymus repens (L) Gould) control. [04/02/2026]. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-61742-8
* Runze Jiag, Caixia Song, Chengming Wang and Tong Xu. 2025. Precision Weeding in Agriculture: A Comprehensive Review of Intelligent Laser Robots Leveraging Deep Learning Techniques. [04/02/2026]. [https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/15/11/1213?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/15/11/1213]
* Robbie Lockie. 2024. Laser-weeding: a game-changing technology for sustainable farming. [04/02/2026]. [https://www.foodfacts.org/articles/laser-weeding-game-changing-technology-sustainable-farming?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://www.foodfacts.org/articles/laser-weeding-game-changing-technology-sustainable-farming]
* La France Agricole. 2022. New technology: A 3-point mounted laser weeding system at Carbon Robotics. [04/02/2026]. [https://www.lafranceagricole.fr/actualites-machinisme/article/750687/un-systeme-de-desherbage-laser-3-points-porte-chez-carbon-robotics?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://www.lafranceagricole.fr/actualites-machinisme/article/750687/un-systeme-de-desherbage-laser-3-points-porte-chez-carbon-robotics]
[[de:Laser-Unkrautbekämpfung]]
[[fr:Désherbage_laser]]
[[de:Laser-Unkrautbekämpfung]]
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[[es:Deshierbe_láser]]
[[fi:Laserkitkentä]]
[[hu:Lézeres_gyomirtás]]
[[it:Diserbo_laser]]
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[[pl:Laserowe_odchwaszczanie]]
[[pt:Desbaste_a_laser]]
[[ar:إزالة_الأعشاب_بالليزر]]

Targeted Weeding

2026-02-18T12:58:13Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=ARA.jpg
| Type de production=Field crops@ Vegetables@ Meadows
| Mots-clés=Targeted spraying, Targeted weeding
}}

{{Pages liées}}

Targeted weeding allows '''applying herbicide only on the targeted weeds within a crop'''. With this technique, one '''reduces herbicide use''', notably by avoiding blanket treatments. Targeted weeding is all the more interesting since some selective products are costly.

The treatment can be done at several scales: on a '''strip''', on a '''row''', or on a '''detected weed'''.

== How localized row spraying works ==
This technique consists of localizing chemical weeding on the crop row, thanks to '''specific nozzles''' (conical or uniform spray types are preferred) which must '''spray precisely, limit drift, and cover the strip without overlap'''. It can be applied:

* for '''pre-emergence weeding''', by mounting a localized treatment boom on the seeder
* for '''mixed post-emergence weeding''', by adapting a localized treatment boom on a hoeing machine ('''weed hoe''')
* for '''localized chemical post-emergence weeding''', by using a localized spraying boom alone.

Localized row spraying is complemented by '''mechanical inter-row weeding'''.

=== Suitable crops ===
Localized row spraying is used on crops grown in clearly visible rows and whose inter-row can be managed mechanically.

== How targeted spraying works ==
This technique is more precise because it allows '''spraying herbicide only on the weed'''. Targeted spraying relies on '''sensors, cameras, and artificial intelligence.'''

Targeted spraying can be '''immediate or deferred''' (based on prescription maps).
{{Youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=53&v=Pgu3QJ5KKys&embeds_referring_euri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arvalis.fr%2F&embeds_referring_origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arvalis.fr&source_ve_path=Mjg2NjY}}

=== Sensors and cameras ===
Sensors and cameras can be '''mounted on the sprayer boom or on drones'''.

Depending on the tools, distinctions between cash crops and weeds or between soil and weeds can be based on:

* '''Reflectance''', an index quantifying the light flux reflected by the plant relative to the light flux it received. Each plant has its own spectral band, allowing recognition. Infrared rays inform about the internal structure of leaves, while visible rays estimate plant biomass.
* '''Chlorophyll fluorescence''' specifies weed biomass

* the '''images''' obtained by cameras.
{{Youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7mG8zqa8i7g}}

=== Data analysis ===

==== Deferred spraying ====
From data collected by sensors and cameras, '''pixelated maps''' of the plots are created, called '''prescription maps'''. These must then be decoded by artificial intelligence and loaded into the device that will spray the herbicide later, hence deferred spraying.
{{Youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GAwRV8oeesM}}

==== Immediate spraying ====
In the case of immediate spraying, data are analyzed and processed as soon as they are captured. An action response is then implemented within seconds for the sprayer. The analysis system relies on '''artificial intelligence integrated into the sprayer.'''
{{Youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqgoioUp-Ps}}

=== Spraying ===
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Immediate spraying
! colspan="2" |Deferred spraying
|-
|'''Advantages'''
|
* Single pass
| colspan="2" |
* Clear view of weed distribution and amount of product needed for treatment
* Tools can be retrofitted
|-
|'''Disadvantages'''
|
* Requires advanced, powerful, and costly technologies
|'''Drone'''

Flight authorization required
|'''Tractor-mounted camera'''

Two passes over plots required
|}
The prescription map can be used on '''any sprayer equipped with GPS, section control, and an unlocked console for modulation''' (option cost between €500 and €1500). This technique therefore does not require buying new equipment; however, correct interpretation of the map by the sprayer depends on the tool's parameters, which must have '''good boom stability''' and a '''responsive regulation system.'''

It is also recommended to equip the sprayer with '''PWM nozzle holders''' (Pulse Width Modulation) capable of '''controlling nozzle opening/closing and modulating the dose''' delivered by the nozzle.

=== Cost ===
According to trials conducted by the Chamber of Agriculture of Somme, which uses a drone for deferred targeted weeding, herbicide application costs '''€23/ha''' (€15 for weed detection and €8 for herbicide) instead of €40/ha for blanket weeding. Savings from targeted weeding depend, however, on the '''infestation level of the plot and the section width'''.

For a machine like Ecorobotix's Ara<ref>Terre nature. 2025. Ecorobotix: the flagship of precision weeding. [28/01/2026]. <nowiki>https://www.terrenature.ch/hors-serie/ecorobotix-le-fleuron-du-desherbage-de-precision/</nowiki></ref> which performs immediate targeted spraying, the machine cost ranges between '''€164,493 and €217,990'''. According to the company, the return on investment occurs in '''2 to 4 years''' depending on the farm size.

== Advantages of localized or targeted spraying ==

* Strong reduction in applied volumes, thus '''reduced environmental impact'''.
* '''Financial savings'''.
* '''Less stress or growth slowdown''' for cash crops.

== Limitations ==

* '''Investment cost''' in equipment (especially for targeted spraying).
* '''Longer treatment time''' because equipment must be precisely adjusted, prescription maps created for deferred spraying systems, and time allowed for algorithms to process data for immediate spraying systems (implying reduced sprayer speed in the field).

== Market tools ==
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Feature'''
!'''Ara (Ecorobotix)'''
!'''Smart Sprayer'''
!'''Sniper'''
!'''I-SPRAY (Kuhn)'''
|-
|'''Immediate or deferred treatment?'''
|Immediate
|Immediate
|Immediate
|Deferred
|-
|'''Technology type'''
|Ultra-high precision mounted sprayer with AI ''Plant-by-Plant''
|Cameras + AI + xarvio™ agronomic decision
|Cameras + AI for weed detection
|Hyperspectral sensors + AI integrated into sprayer
|-
|'''Weed detection'''
|RGB + 3D cameras, AI to distinguish weeds vs crops
|High-resolution Bosch cameras, vegetation recognition
|Cameras and algorithms detect weeds (green on brown and green on green)
|Hyperspectral sensors continuously analyze vegetation
|-
|'''Spraying mode'''
|Plant by plant (6×6 cm)
|Localized in real-time according to predefined thresholds
|Localized based on detection
|Localized + potential modulation based on biomass
|-
|'''Product reduction'''
|Up to 80-95% depending on conditions
|Up to 70-90% according to trials
|Up to 70-90% (depending on detected technology)
|Up to 95% possible (depending on targeted application)
|-
|'''Sensors and lighting'''
|Yes – 6 camera modules, integrated AI
|Yes – cameras + LED lighting
|Yes – cameras + AI
|Yes – hyperspectral sensors
|-
|'''Green on green treatment (crop-weed distinction)'''
|Yes (distinguishes weeds even close to crops)
|Yes, continuous analysis
|Yes – recognizes crops and weeds
|Yes – capable of various green on green and green on brown strategies
|-
|'''Agronomic decision system'''
|Embedded AI ''Plant-by-Plant''
|AI + xarvio platform for thresholds and dynamic decision
|Embedded AI
|AI with hyperspectral analysis (and future platform integration)
|-
|'''Commercial maturity phase'''
|Commercialized and in use
|Available / progressive commercialization
|Developed and field tested
|Concept tested, limited initial equipment
|-
|'''Photos'''
|[[File:ARA.jpg|center|frameless]]
|[[File:Smart sprayer.jpg|Smart sprayer|center|frameless]]
|[[File:Sniper2.jpg|Sniper|center|frameless]]
|[[File:I Spray.jpg|I Spray|center|frameless]]
|}

== Sources ==

* ARVALIS. 2025. Targeted weeding: equipping a sprayer becomes profitable from 25% treated area. [28/01/2026]. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/desherbage-cible-equiper-un-pulverisateur-devient-rentable-des-25-de-surface
* Christelle Gée, Gawain Jones, Thibault Maillot, Jean-Noël Paoli, Sylvain Villette. 2018. Precision weeding. [28/01/2026]. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christelle-Gee/publication/325463660_Chapitre_26_Le_desherbage_de_precision/links/5da0699245851553ff870588/Chapitre-26-Le-desherbage-de-precision.pdf
* Paysan Breton. 2025. Camera-based targeted spraying in retrofit mode. [28/01/2026]. https://www.paysan-breton.fr/2025/01/la-pulverisation-ciblee-par-cameras-en-mode-retrofit/
* Réussir. 2021. Targeted weeding, an innovation to reduce herbicide IFTs. [28/01/2026]. https://www.action-agricole-picarde.com/le-desherbage-cible-une-innovation-pour-reduire-les-ift-herbicides

* Syngenta. 2023. Targeted spraying, a promising technique. [28/01/2026]. https://www.syngenta.fr/agriculture-durable/bonnes-pratiques-agricoles/article/pulverisation-ciblee-technique-prometteuse
* Terre nature. 2025. Ecorobotix: the flagship of precision weeding. [28/01/2026]. https://www.terrenature.ch/hors-serie/ecorobotix-le-fleuron-du-desherbage-de-precision/
[[fr:Désherbage ciblé]]
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[[es:Deshierbe_dirigido]]
[[fi:Kohdennettu_rikkakasvien_poisto]]
[[hu:Célzott_felülvizsgálat]]
[[it:Diserbo_mirato]]
[[nl:Gericht_wieden]]
[[pl:Selektywne_odchwaszczanie]]
[[pt:Desbaste_seletivo]]
[[ar:إزالة_الأعشاب_الضارة_الموجهة]]

Chemical weeding

2026-02-18T12:57:25Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Grande thématique | Sous-titre =
| Titre =
| Image = Sprayer in a field - geograph.org.uk - 2313172.jpg
| Portail parent = Weed management
| Titre court =
| Mots-clés SEO = Weed management, Weeds
| Description = Weed management using chemical plant protection products
| Glyph = Desherbage-chimique
| Icone = Désherbage chimique - portail.png}}

'''Chemical[[désherbage|weed control]]''' involves applying a '''herbicide to [[adventices|weeds]]''' to '''eliminate''' them because they compete with cultivated plants.

==Effectiveness of herbicides==
The'''effectiveness of herbicides depends on a number of parameters''' (soil and climate conditions, type and quantity of weeds, etc.). These parameters will greatly '''influence the action of herbicides''' on weeds and therefore their performance.

For greater effectiveness and greater respect for the environment, it is necessary to'''adapt and optimise the use of herbicides''' by playing on different factors.

===Choice of herbicide===
First of all, it is important to choose a '''herbicide that is suited to the weeds present''' in the field, taking into account their potential resistance and phenology. You therefore need to take into account :

*The '''weed species''' present.
*The '''degree of [[Gestion du salissement en ACS, par Paul ROBERT - NLSD 2018|weed]]''' '''infestation''', i.e. the more weeds there are, the dirtier the plot.
*Weed '''emergence period''', '''emergence depth''', etc., in order to adapt solutions and/or application periods.
*Weed '''resistance'''.

{{Article détaillé | Choosing the right herbicide}}

===Technical itinerary===
The<nowiki/>'''technical itinerary''' (ITK) also plays an important role in'''herbicide''' selection and'''effectiveness'''. The action of herbicides depends in particular on :

*The '''following crop''' : some herbicides are very '''persistent''', which means that the molecules can remain in the soil until the following crop is planted and have a toxic effect on it.
*The '''phytotoxicity of the herbicide''' : it is important to choose a herbicide that is non-toxic to the current crop, so that only weeds are targeted.
*'''Timing of''' herbicide '''application''' : the herbicide can be applied '''pre-emergence''' or post-emergence. '''[[Préférer les herbicides de post-levée aux solutions de pré-levée|post-emergence.]]'''

{{Article détaillé | Choosing the right herbicide}}

===Application conditions===
The various '''application conditions''' must also be taken into account to ensure maximum effectiveness of the herbicide product. The main conditions to take into account are :

*'''Soil and weather conditions''' (humidity, wind, temperature, soil moisture, etc.).

*The '''preparation of the spray mixture''' (formulation, order of addition of components, pH of the water, agitation, etc.), which can affect the herbicide's effectiveness by 30 to 50%.
*'''Dosage.'''
*'''Equipment''' (nozzles, forward speed, etc.).
*'''Low volume''' : volume of spray mixture less than 100 litres/ha.

{{Article détaillé | Optimising herbicide application}}

==How herbicides work==

There are '''different types of herbicide''', depending mainly on their '''composition''' and how they '''work'''.

The types of application will therefore differ :

*'''Root-penetrating''' herbicides are applied directly to the soil as a pre-emergence treatment.

*'''Foliar-penetrating''' herbicides are applied to the leaves as a post-emergence treatment.

As well as the types of action :

*'''Contact''' herbicides, which act after penetrating the tissues, but without migrating to other organs of the plant.
*'''Systemic''' herbicides, which act after penetration and can migrate from one part of the plant to another.
{{Article détaillé | How a herbicide works}} 
==Preventive herbicide ?==
Many people use a herbicide as '''insurance against risk''', but it is wiser to use herbicides as the '''last stage in a [[weed control]] strategy'''. Certain '''preventive methods''' (before weeds appear) make it possible to avoid invasion by weeds without the need for '''curative treatments''' (after weeds have appeared) :

*Treat the '''edges of plots.'''
*Know the weed and its '''annual decline rate'''.
*'''Stagger sowing dates.'''
*[[Faux semis et herse étrille : une combinaison gagnante|False seeding]], etc.

==THE IFT==
The Treatment Frequency Indicator (TFI) corresponds to the number of doses of plant protection products applied per hectare during a crop year.

It is based on the number of doses of product applied per hectare over the course of the season (seed treatments, herbicides, insecticides, etc.).
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type of IFT
!Description
|-
|Herbicide IFT
|Weed destruction
|-
|IFT insecticides
|Control of insects, mites and nematodes
|-
|IFT fungicides
|Control of fungi
|-
|Other TFIs
|Growth regulators, molluscicides, rodenticides, bactericides and virucides
|-
|IFT seed treatments
|Seed protection
|-
|IFT biocontrol
|Macro-organisms, micro-organisms, chemical mediators, natural substances
|}

The IFT is measured using the formula :
[[File:DesherbageChimique CalculIFT.jpg|alt=Calcul IFT|left|frameless|382x382px]]
{{clear}}

The reference doses correspond to the approved doses.

{{Article détaillé | Reducing IFT}}

==Annexes==

{{Pages liées}}
[[fr:Désherbage chimique]]
[[de:Chemische_Unkrautbekämpfung]]
[[el:Χημικός_αποχλωριασμός]]
[[es:Deshierbe_químico]]
[[fi:Kemiallinen_rikkakasvien_torjunta]]
[[hu:Vegyszeres_gyomirtás]]
[[it:Diserbo_chimico]]
[[nl:Chemische_onkruidbestrijding]]
[[pl:Odchwaszczanie_chemiczne]]
[[pt:Desbaste_químico]]
[[ar:إزالة_الأعشاب_بالكيماويات]]

Associated cultures

2026-02-18T12:56:48Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Transitool
|Nom= Intercropping
| Image=Culture associee.PNG
| ImageCaption=Illustration of the practice of intercropping within the serious game Erosion TTOOL. Credit: Delphine Hombrouckx
| Type de production=Field crops
| Carte=
}}
This involves cultivating '''2 or more plant species''' '''on the same plot''' and '''during at least one common growing season'''.

==Description==

=== Advantages ===
* '''Protection of the topsoil''' and limitation of [[Soil erosion|erosion]].
* '''Increase in productivity''' per hectare.
* '''Limitation of [[weeds]]''' (especially valid for [[cereals]] / [[legumes]] associations compared to pure legume crops).
* Increase in '''[[biodiversity]]''' (macrofauna)<ref>https://www.civam.org/les-benefices-des-cultures-associees/</ref>.

=== Disadvantages ===
* '''Competition''' between plant species for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
* Issues related to sorting during the simultaneous harvest of different species.

== Recommendations<ref>https://ariege.chambre-agriculture.fr/productions-techniques/experimentations-et-projets-collectifs/pour-plus-de-technicite/animation-collective-en-ab/cultures-associees/</ref> ==
* This choice is very useful for large-scale [[:Category:Crops|crop]] farms in [[Organic farming]] as it helps to '''secure production''', '''limit weeds and [[pests]]'''.
* Associated species must be '''complementary in resource use and limit competition between them'''. They can be [[:Category:Annual and perennial crops|annual, perennial]] or [[:Category:Perennial crops|perennial]].
* '''Choice of species and varieties:''' Depends on harvest and sowing periods according to the intended use as well as compatibility between plant species. It is not recommended to associate species from the same botanical family as they are likely to compete strongly with each other.
* '''A common intercropping:''' Cereal + legume. The fixation of atmospheric [[nitrogen]] performed by the Fabaceae (legume) benefits the cereal whose protein content would be higher (by +0.7 to +1.1% for soft [[wheat]] associated with a legume). At the same time, the [[Legumes|legume]] can use the cereal as a support, making it less susceptible to certain diseases such as [[lodging]] and also easier to harvest.

{{Annexes de la pratique}}

== Sources ==
<References/>
[[fr:Cultures associées]]
[[de:Assoziierte_Kulturen]]
[[el:Σχετικές_καλλιέργειες]]
[[es:Culturas_asociadas]]
[[fi:Liitännäiskulttuurit]]
[[hu:Kapcsolódó_kultúrák]]
[[it:Colture_associate]]
[[nl:Geassocieerde_culturen]]
[[pl:Powiązane_kultury]]
[[pt:Culturas_associadas]]
[[ar:الثقافات_المرتبطة]]

Intermediate Multi-Services Culture (CIMS)

2026-02-18T12:56:23Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
| Image = Couvert-vegetal.jpg
| ImageCaption = CIMS
| Sous-categorie = Cover crop
| Objectif = Soil and fertilization@Cost reduction@Diseases@Weeds@Environment & biodiversity
| Mots-clés = Soil regeneration
}}{{Mois d'intérêt de la page|1=July,August,September}}
[[Cover crops|Multi-Service Intermediate Crops]] or [[CIMS]], are [[:Category:Crops|crops]] sown during the intercrop period to provide various ecosystem services: recycling mineral elements (N, P, K, S, etc.), [[soil cover]] to limit [[Erosion|erosion]], management of [[weeds]] and [[pests]], as well as storage of [[soil organic matter]] and carbon in the soil.

==Objectives==
{{Image | Image = CIMS_Services.jpg | Alignement = Right | Cadre = True | Légende = Various services provided by CIMS. Source: Openfield | Largeur = 414px}}
It is an [[intermediate crop]] that allows the production of a number of ecosystem services (agronomic and ecological) through the production of agroecological functions which can mainly be:

*Trapping nitrates and sulfates.
*Providing [[nitrogen]] to the following crop.
*Recycling mineral elements (N, P, K, S, etc.).
*Storing [[soil organic matter]] and carbon.
*Reducing [[Erosion|erosion]] by providing soil cover.
*Structuring the soil and increasing load-bearing capacity thanks to their root system.
*Improving soil water properties.
*Reducing pest pressure on crops.
*Preventing the development of [[:Category:Weeds|weeds]].
*Producing [[fodder]] and energy.
*Improving landscape aesthetics.
*Increasing [[biodiversity]] by promoting earthworms and [[beneficial insects]].

They are not intended to be harvested and are destroyed before planting the cash crop. Their biomass is returned to the soil to promote nutrient recycling to the following crop and thus produce various ecosystem services with variable levels of expression depending on the species and their technical itinerary, notably the timing and method of destruction and incorporation into the soil.

[https://www6.inrae.fr/ciag/content/download/6302/46324/file/Vol62-1-Justes.pdf To learn more about the subject.]

==Different types of CIMS==
CIMS can be grouped into 5 main types.

===Nitrate Catch Crops (CIPAN)===
[[CIPAN|Nitrate catch intermediate crops]] respond, from a regulatory standpoint, to an [[:Category:Objective|environmental]] objective of protecting water quality against pollution by nitrates of agricultural origin.

===Energy Cover Crops (CIVE)===
[[CIVE|Energy cover intercrops]] aim to produce biomass for energy by being used as input in an [[agricultural methanization]] unit.

===Catch Crops===
[[Establishing catch crops or double cropping|Catch crops]] can be distinguished from other '''[[intermediate crops]]''' by an objective of '''[[production valorization]]''', meaning they are harvested. Within a crop rotation, the catch crop thus optimizes the use of available agricultural land.

===Intercrops===
[[Cover crop|Intercrops]] aim to reduce weed presence or to structure the soil.

===Green Manures===
[[Cover crop|Green manures]] aim to regenerate soils and their fertility.

{{youtube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VMttoOMjeE}}

==Which species to choose?==
The [[Choosing a cover crop|choice of CIMS]] depends on the intended objective (soil structuring, biomass, fodder, nitrate trap, etc.), the crop rotation or succession, soil type, and equipment.

Species mixtures are preferred to achieve better CIMS efficiency.

The main species are:

*'''[[Legumes]]''': [[Fava bean]], [[clover]], [[vetch]], [[sweet pea]], [[forage pea]].
*'''Grasses''': [[Triticale]], [[oat]], [[forage sorghum]], [[rye]], [[millet]], [[moha]].
*'''Crucifers''': [[Mustard]], [[rapeseed]], [[turnip rape]], [[radish]].
*'''Others''': [[Sunflower]], [[phacelia]], [[buckwheat]], [[nyjer]].

==Sowing==

Before starting with CIMS, it is important to carefully consider how the chosen species will be [[Sowing a cover crop|sown]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+
![[:Category:Equipment|Equipment]]
!Advantages
!Constraints
|-
|'''Seed drill combination'''
|
*Very good sowing uniformity
*Versatility
|
*Low work rate
*High cost
|-
|'''Broadcast seeding'''
'''with [[cultivator]]'''
|
*Versatility
*Single pass
*Very good work rate
|
*Considerable investment
*Depth irregularity
*Sometimes uneven emergence
*Presence of residues
*Cannot sow large seeds (fava beans, [[peas]], etc.)
|-
|'''Spreader seeding'''
'''centrifugal'''

'''then cultivator'''
|
*Low investment
*Can sow large seeds
|
*Two passes
*Depth irregularity
*Sometimes uneven emergence
*Presence of residues
|-
|'''Direct disc seed drill'''
|
*High work rate
*Uniformity and control of sowing depth
*[[Autonomy]]
|
*Very high purchase price (10,000 - 15,000 €/unit)
|-
|'''Tooth seed drill'''
|
*Quality of sowing
*Work rate
*Autonomy
|
*Rapid wear of teeth in [[no-till]]
|}

==Destruction==
Depending on the CIMS established, the [[Destroying a cover crop|destruction]] will be more or less effective depending on the chosen method.

{{Image | Image = CIMS_Destruction.jpg | Largeur = 600px | Frame = True }}

==Effects on the rotation==

===Adaptation to the rotation===

{{Image | Image = CIMS_AdaptationRotation.jpg | Largeur = 600px | Frame = True }}

===Adaptation to the following crop===

{{Image | Image = CIMS_AdaptationCultureSuivante.jpg | Largeur = 600px | Frame = True }}

==Points of caution==
Thus, a CIMS can provide various ecosystem services and is therefore multi-service, such as trapping nitrate and providing mineral nitrogen to the following cash crop with the aim of reducing [[:Category:Inputs|inputs]], or purifying drainage water of nitrate ions while maintaining the yield objectives of main crops, or fighting erosion through soil cover, etc.

However, some of these objectives may be mutually contradictory, requiring compromises between sought services to determine the desired level of expression for each. Indeed, '''it is unrealistic to think that a CIMS can produce all ecosystem services at a high level of expression in all situations'''.

The design of species assemblies and the technical itinerary of the CIMS will determine the compromise of ecosystem services produced by the CIMS in a given production situation and pedoclimatic context.

Finally, if species are poorly chosen and their technical itinerary poorly adjusted, CIMS can also produce disservices, such as increased pathogens or weeds. Vigilance is needed to minimize these disservices by carefully designing the species mixture or the timing of destruction and incorporation of the CIMS.

===Limits not to be ignored===
Beyond additional costs of €30 to €100/ha (seed purchase, cultural practices) and sometimes increased labor time, several disadvantages may be encountered. Continuous cover can favor certain [[diseases]] or pests:

*'''[[Slug]]s''': Maintaining a humid and protected environment favors the slug cycle, even with less palatable covers (mustard, phacelia, oat).

*'''[[Aphids]]''': Vectors of [[barley yellow dwarf virus]], they are favored by intercrops based on [[cereal]] straws.

*'''[[Crane fly]] or [[flies]]''' on [[beet]] or [[corn]]: attacks are sometimes favored by certain [[cover crops]] such as [[clovers]], [[ryegrass]] or cereal regrowth (and even [[mustard]]).

*[[Voles]]: Depending on the year, the suppression of tillage and maintaining cover during the intercrop period are also reported as risk factors for vole proliferation.

*Presence of covers from the same family as the cultivated species increases certain '''pest risks'''. It seems preferable to establish species little or not present in the rotation or, at least, to alternate species families.

*[[Green manures]] '''limit the use of false seedbeds''' during the summer period. Their establishment must therefore be reasoned according to field weediness.

*'''Slower soil warming in spring''': Species choice and especially destruction timing can avoid this risk. For crusting or hydromorphic soils, an overly developed or flattened cover can pose problems for establishing the following crop, especially if [[No-till under living cover|no-till]] is planned in the [[cover crop]] without destroying the intermediate crop (mustard sometimes causes problems, phacelia seems interesting).

*Some cover crops can have '''depressive effects''' on the following crop if too developed. They consume nitrogen to the detriment of the following crop: this is particularly true of perennial grasses ([[ryegrass]], cereals) or [[radish]] before a spring crop. Rapeseed can have a marked depressive effect on following crops, such as corn.

'''The implementation of intermediate crops must be reasoned by considering the entire technical itinerary in coherence with the rotation:''' species choice (or variety), their mode and dates of establishment and destruction are all elements to integrate, not forgetting their positive or depressive effects on parasitism and weediness in following crops.

==Regulatory point==
In "nitrate vulnerable zones," representing 80% of arable land for [[arable crops]] in France, CIMS with a [[CIPAN]] objective are mandatory for at least three months per year in long intercrop periods, except for exemptions.

==Further reading==

*[http://agriculture-de-conservation.com/sites/agriculture-de-conservation.com/IMG/pdf/cipan_Bourgogne.pdf Intermediate crops - Burgundy Chamber of Agriculture]
*[https://ariege.chambre-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/Occitanie/063_Inst-Ariege/Documents/Actus_Agenda/2018/Cultures_intermediaires.pdf Multi-Service Intermediate Crops (CIMS) - Occitanie Chamber of Agriculture]

==Sources==

*[https://www6.inrae.fr/ciag/content/download/6302/46324/file/Vol62-1-Justes.pdf Context, Concepts and Definition of Multi-Service Intermediate Crops - Eric Justes and Guy Richard - INRA]
*[https://www.haute-garonne.fr/dossier/les-cultures-intermediaires-multi-services-cims-nouvelles-alliees-de-vos-exploitations Multi-Service Intermediate Crops (CIMS), new allies of your farms - Departmental Council of Haute-Garonne]
*[https://draaf.nouvelle-aquitaine.agriculture.gouv.fr/Les-Cultures-Intermediaires-Multi The CIMS - DRAAF Nouvelle Aquitaine]
*[http://agriculture-de-conservation.com/sites/agriculture-de-conservation.com/IMG/pdf/cipan_Bourgogne.pdf Intermediate crops - Burgundy Chamber of Agriculture]

{{Annexes de la pratique
|Complémentaire=Energy Valorization Intermediate Crop (CIVE)@ Nitrate Catch Intermediate Crop (CIPAN)@ Establishing catch crops or double cropping@ Cover crop
| Favorise=Slug@ Aphids@ Crane fly@ Flies@ Vole}}

{{Ajouter au projet|1=Scaling up agroecology}}

{{Ajouter au projet |1= SOIL Cover}}
[[fr:Culture Intermédiaire Multi-Services (CIMS)]]
[[de:Kultur_Intermediär_Multi-Dienste_(CIMS)]]
[[el:Πολιτισμός_Μεσαίας_Κλίμακας_Πολυ-Υπηρεσιών_(CIMS)]]
[[es:Cultura_Intermedia_Multi-Servicios_(CIMS)]]
[[fi:Välipalvelut_Monipalvelut_(CIMS)]]
[[hu:Köztes_Kultúra_Többszolgáltatós_(CIMS)]]
[[it:Cultura_Intermedia_Multi-Servizi_(CIMS)]]
[[nl:Culture_Intermediair_Multi-Services_(CIMS)]]
[[pl:Kultura_Intermédiaire_Multi-Services_(CIMS)]]
[[pt:Cultura_Intermediária_Multi-Serviços_(CIMS)]]
[[ar:الثقافة_الوسيطة_متعددة_الخدمات_(CIMS)]]

Cover crop

2026-02-18T12:55:15Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Matériel
| Nom = cover crop
| Image =
| ImageCaption =
| Type de matériel = Tillage tool}}

A [[Cover Crop|cover crop]] is a type of [[disc harrow]], but a heavier one, thus working the soil a bit deeper<ref>Agripartner: How to choose your disc harrow discs? https://www.agripartner.fr/comment-choisir-ses-disques-de-dechaumeur--p-110858</ref>.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
![[Cover Crop|Cover crop]]
!Independent disc harrow
|-
|Versatile tool suitable for all soil types but preferred in dry conditions
|
* Allows very shallow work at high speed

* Will be effective even in very stony soils.
|-
|Works between 5 and 15 cm deep
|More superficial work (from less than 5 cm to 10 cm)
|}

See also:
* [[Harrows]]
* [[Tine harrow]]
* [[Disc harrow]]
* [[Independent disc harrow]]

==Annexes==
{{Pages liées}}

{{#set: Import GECO le = 01/02/2021}}

[[Category:Tillage tool]]
[[de:Zwischenfrucht]]
[[fr:Cover_crop]]
[[de:Zwischenfrucht]]
[[el:Φυτεία κάλυψης εδάφους]]
[[es:Cultivo_de_cobertura]]
[[fi:Peitekasvi]]
[[hu:Takarmánynövény]]
[[it:Coltura_di_copertura]]
[[nl:Vanggewas]]
[[pl:Roślina_okrywowa]]
[[pt:Cultura de cobertura]]
[[ar:محصول الغطاء النباتي]]

Summer Cover

2026-02-18T12:54:57Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Culture
|Nom=Summer cover crop
| Organisme = AgroLeague
| Image = Quelles espèces implanter pour le couvert végétal d’été 5.jpg
| Sous-categorie=Cover crop
| ImageCaption=Credit: Baptiste Duhamel}}

Short or summer cover crops are placed '''between 2 [[cereals]]'''. The '''choice''' of cover crops is considered based on the '''planned technical itinerary''', the '''constraints''' of the plot, the '''available equipment''', the '''price, seed availability''', and the '''set objectives'''.

==Description==
The summer cover crop should be planted '''before/shortly after harvest''' depending on equipment and constraints. The idea is to sow immediately after the harvest of the '''winter cereal''' to take advantage of the '''residual soil moisture'''. However, the success of this technique remains dependent on '''summer climatic conditions'''. In case of persistent drought, the cover crop can fail. Investments should therefore be considered according to the '''local pedo-climatic conditions'''.

== Identifying the right species mix ==
The choice of species is important to obtain an efficient [[Cover crops|cover crop]].

For the '''short intercrop''', a mix including [[Cover Legumes - Louis PERUSSE, Quebec, by Agron'hommes|legumes]] and species that '''develop quickly''', have some tolerance to '''heat''', and '''different root systems''' can be recommended.

In addition to '''nitrogen [[storage]]''', adding [[legumes]] to the cover also helps maintain a '''medium/low C/N ratio of the cover (from 10 to 20)''', which allows a faster release of organic elements after cover destruction, without causing [[Understanding and avoiding nitrogen hunger|nitrogen hunger]].

'''Choosing small seeds''' gives more chances to [[Successfully establish a cover crop|succeed with the cover crop]] because the '''water requirement for germination is lower''':

* [[Phacelia]] (2 kg/ha);
* [[Radish]]/[[rape]] (2 kg/ha);
* [[Nyjer|Niger]] (1 kg/ha);
* [[Alexandrian clover]] or squarrosum (2 kg/ha);
* [[Flax]] (2 kg/ha);
* [[:Category:Sorghum|Sorghum]] (20 kg/ha);
* [[Hairy vetch]] (20 kg/ha);
* [[Mustard]] (variety "Green", later maturing) (3 kg/ha);
* In case of [[ryegrass]] issues: add 5 kg/ha of [[Italian ryegrass]].

'''Example of a possible summer cover crop mix''':

[[Phacelia]] (2 kg/ha) - [[sunflower]] (4 kg/ha) - [[forage pea]] (25 kg/ha) - [[common vetch]] (10 kg/ha).

If the following crop in the [[Crop rotations|rotation]] is a '''spring crop''', sowing a '''relay cover''' or '''double cover''' may be relevant to achieve maximum density and best benefit from the positive externalities of the cover. In this case, winter species are necessary: [[cereals]] ([[triticale]]/[[rye]] or [[oats]]), [[Cover Legumes - Louis PERUSSE, Quebec, by Agron'hommes|legumes]] ([[forage pea]]/[[fava bean]]/[[:Category:Vetches|vetches]]) and “'''small seeds'''” in smaller proportion ([[phacelia]]/[[flax]]/[[crimson clover]]).

==Benefits of the summer cover crop==
'''Short intercrop cover crops''', between 2 [[Wheat|wheat]] crops for example, play a key role in '''yield ceiling release'''. Trials conducted by [[:Category:Arvalis|Arvalis]] between 1975 and 2016 showed an average yield gain of +2.9% for the second wheat sown after a [[:Category:Cover crop|cover crop]] compared to the control without cover.

===According to trial results===

*'''Grasses''' in cover crops bring on average +1% yield;
*'''Crucifers''' +3%;
*'''Legumes''' and '''cover mixes''' with legumes +6%.

An example with a concrete case:

*For a [[wheat]] with a yield potential of 70 q/ha, a 3% yield increase represents 2.1 q/ha more;

These figures highlight the “yield gain” aspect, often sought by producers.

==Sources==
[https://www.agro-league.com/blog/quelles-especes-implanter-pour-le-couvert-vegetal-dete Which species to plant for the summer cover crop?] - [[Structure:AgroLeague|AgroLeague]]

==Appendices==

{{Annexes pour une culture}}
[[de:Sommerbedeckung]]
[[fr:Couvert_d'été]]
[[de:Sommerbedeckung]]
[[el:Καλοκαιρινό_σκέπαστρο]]
[[es:Cubierta_de_verano]]
[[fi:Kesäpeite]]
[[hu:Nyári_fedél]]
[[it:Copertura_estiva]]
[[nl:Zomerdekking]]
[[pl:Letni_pokrycie]]
[[pt:Cobertura_de_verão]]
[[ar:غطاء_صيفي]]

Varietal choice, a lever against weeds

2026-02-18T12:54:26Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Pratique
|Programme=Conserwa
| Image=Différentes vériétés blé.webp
| Type de production=Field crops
| Objectif=Weeds
| Mots-clés=Genotype, Variety
}}

{{Pages liées}}
A competitive crop is a '''crop capable of reducing weed growth over time'''. Competing [[:Category:Crops|crops]] therefore constitute an '''integrated management tactic''' against weeds.

== Traits of interest for a competitive cereal crop ==

=== Height at the end of the cycle ===
The crop must '''grow quickly''' and reach a '''high height at the end of the cycle''' in order to '''deprive the weed of light'''.

This parameter shows great inter-varietal variability.

=== Vigor at the beginning of the cycle ===
'''Vigorous crops at the beginning of the cycle''' seem to be more competitive; studies suggest that the high plant height at the end of the cycle and the vigor at the beginning of the cycle are the main traits influencing the competitiveness of varieties.

It has also been noted that '''wheat varieties vigorous at the beginning of the cycle are more tolerant to weeds'''.

=== Tillering capacity ===
Tillering capacity is a trait regularly highlighted to '''improve the competitiveness of wheat, [[barley]], [[oat]], [[triticale]], [[buckwheat]], or [[hemp]] varieties'''. When this ability is '''high''', the plant has a large number of productive tillers, which results in '''reducing the biomass production of weeds'''.[[File:Sensibilité adventices à l'étouffement.png|Sensitivity of some weeds to smothering|center|frame]]

This trait strongly depends on '''environmental conditions''', leading to contrasting results depending on the studies conducted.

=== Leaf characteristics ===
The '''leaf habit and leaf area of the uppermost leaves''' of the plant from the heading stage strongly affect the level of competitiveness, especially for '''wheat and [[:Category:Triticale|triticale]]'''. The most efficient genotypes seem to be characterized by a '''large leaf area and a semi-erect habit''' because they deprive the weed of light.

=== Root development ===
Varieties with a '''more developed root system''' can compete more effectively with weeds in the absorption of [[nutrients]] and water.

=== Degree of earliness or lateness ===
The '''degree of earliness or lateness of phenological stages''' of plants also seems to be a key trait in weed control, but this depends on the crops, climatic conditions... An early heading or maturity date can, for example, reduce weed biomass since the latter will develop once the cultivated plant is already well established, thus the [[weed]] will be partly deprived of light and nutrients.

== Studies on varietal competitiveness of certain crops ==

=== Barley ===
A study conducted in Australia<ref>William B. Brown, James M. Mwendwa, Paul A. Weston and Leslie A. Weston. 2022. Evaluation of Barley Cultivars for Competitive Traits in Southern New South Wales. [10/02/2026]. https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/11/3/362 </ref> demonstrated that the Litmus, Compass, and Urambie varieties were more competitive because the weed biomass in their plots was 20 to 50% lower than that of other cultivars, 100 days after emergence. These varieties contributed to significant reductions in weed biomass, notably of [[annual grasses]] such as [[perennial ryegrass]].

Another conclusion of the study identifies parameters significantly contributing to the competitiveness of [[:Category:Barley|barley]]: early crop biomass and its allelopathic activity.

=== Canola ===
Another study conducted in Australia<ref>Md Asaduzzaman, Gregory Doran, Jim Pratley and Hanwen Wu. 2024. Genotype-by-Environment Interaction and Stability of Canola ([[Brassica napus]] L.) for Weed Suppression through Improved Interference. [10/02/2026]. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/14/9/1965</ref> compared four genotypes of [[canola]] (PAK85388-502, AV-OPAL, AV-GARNET, and BAROSSA). The experiments showed that genotypes PAK85388-502 and AV-OPAL were more effective in weed suppression since, at equal planting density (10 plants/m2), they reduced weed biomass by more than 80%.

The four tested genotypes had a similar aerial canopy; however, PAK85388-502 and AV-OPAL had an additional mechanism: [[allelopathy]] which may have played a role in suppressing neighboring weeds.

=== Wheat ===
A study conducted in France<ref>Marie-Hélène Bernicot, [[User:Laurence Fontaine|Laurence Fontaine]], L. Poiret and Benoit Rolland. 2020. Des variétés rustiques concurrentes des adventices pour l’agriculture durable, en particulier l’[[Organic farming|organic farming]]. [10/02/2026]. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laurence-Fontaine-5/publication/284776073_Des_varietes_rustiques_concurrentes_des_adventices_pour_une_agriculture_durable_en_particulier_l%27Agriculture_Biologique/links/5f05c4834585155050948d34/Des-varietes-rustiques-concurrentes-des-adventices-pour-une-agriculture-durable-en-particulier-lAgriculture-Biologique.pdf</ref> concluded that:

* the main traits of a competitive wheat variety are its height at maturity, its ability to cover the soil, and its leaf habit
* the most competitive wheat varieties for weed suppression are grandval and LD76B (among the following: pegassos, apache, saturnus, renan, CF99102, LD269, quebon, caphron, glasgow, sankara, grandval, and LD76B)

== Sources ==

* Agrotransfert. Weed management levers _ Mitigation - competition by the crop for sale. [10/02/2026]. https://www.agro-transfert-rt.org/ressources/adventices/je-minforme/leviers-de-gestion-des-adventices/competition-par-la-culture-de-vente/
* [[User:Bruno Chauvel|Bruno Chauvel]], [[User:Stéphane Cordeau|Stéphane Cordeau]], Laëtitia Lever, Rémi Perronne and Bernard Rolland. Varietal traits associated with the competition of [[cereal straw]] genotypes against weeds and avenues for their selection: a literature review. [10/02/2026]. https://agronomie.asso.fr/aes-12-1-18
[[de:Sortenwahl,_ein_Hebel_gegen_Unkräuter]]
[[fr:Choix_variétal,_un_levier_contre_les_adventices]]
[[de:Sortenwahl, ein Hebel gegen Unkräuter]]
[[el:Επιλογή_ποικιλίας,_ένα_μέσο_κατά_των_ζιζανίων]]
[[es:Elección_varietal,_una_palanca_contra_las_malezas]]
[[fi:Kasvivalinta,_keino_rikkakasvien_torjuntaan]]
[[hu:Fajtaválasztás,_a_gyomok_elleni_eszköz]]
[[it:Scelta_varietale,_una_leva_contro_le_infestioni]]
[[nl:Variëteitskeuze,_een_hefbom_tegen_onkruid]]
[[pl:Wybór_odmian,_narzędzie_walczące_z_chwastami]]
[[pt:Escolha_varietal,_uma_alavanca_contra_as_ervas_daninhas]]
[[ar:اختيار_الصنف،_وسيلة_لمكافحة_الأعشاب_الضارة]]

Bioherbicide

2026-02-18T12:53:47Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Practice
|Image=bioherbicide.jpg
|Objective=Reduction of IFT
| Mots-clés =Chemical weeding, Weeding
}}
A '''bioherbicide''' is a product composed of '''natural substances''' used to control [[weeds]]. These are [[weeding]] products derived from living organisms. The presence of weeds leads to a decrease in yield, so their populations must be reduced, but the products mostly used (glyphosate, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid…) leave residues and pollute soils and water. [[Bioherbicides]] are a less harmful alternative for ecosystems and could also be an alternative for farms practicing [[Organic farming|organic farming]] that rely on [[mechanical]] weeding <ref name=":0">https://hal.science/hal-01604035/document</ref><ref name=":1">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0147651318303129?fr=RR-2&ref=pdf_download&rr=945e43b7ce9ee187</ref>.

== Types of bioherbicides ==

Bioherbicides can be composed of various natural substances: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], plant substances (essential oils)… There are bioherbicides specific to a weed, but also non-specific bioherbicides.

=== Essential oils ===
'''Essential oils''' are the subject of much research for weeding.

* '''Examples of effective oils:''' essential oils containing [[pelargonic acid]] such as [[geranium]] essential oil, or vinegar (acetic acid).
* '''Mode of action:''' [[Allelopathic effect]] inhibiting germination and growth of weeds, comparable to some chemical [[herbicides]] on species such as field mustard ([[Sinapis arvensis]]).

The only bioherbicide product currently authorized in large [[:Category:Crops|crops]] is '''pelargonic acid''' (for example the product “[https://ephy.anses.fr/ppp/beloukha Beloukha]”).

Pelargonic acid is a fatty acid found for example in [[:Category:Geranium|geranium]]. This acid dries out and dehydrates the plant by destroying its epidermis. It is a non-selective bioherbicide. It acts in just a few hours, however its effectiveness decreases over time<ref>[https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/sous-quelles-conditions-peut-encore-avoir-recours-au-glyphosate#:~:text=Le%20seul%20produit%20bioherbicide%20actuellement,aussi%20efficace%20essentiellement%20sur%20dicotyl%C3%A9dones. https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/sous-quelles-conditions-peut-encore-avoir-recours-au-glyphosate#:~:text=Le%20seul%20produit%20bioherbicide%20actuellement,aussi%20efficace%20essentiellement%20sur%20dicotyl%C3%A9dones.]</ref>.

In [[viticulture]], it is used for shoot thinning and under-row weeding.

It is not authorized in [[Organic farming|organic farming]] because it can potentially impact the crop environment<ref>https://intox-detox.fr/article/1713-l39acide-pelargonique-est-il-aussi-dangereux-que-le-glyphosate</ref>.

=== APEO Project ===
In Belgium, [[Essential oils for weeding and disease management: trial feedback, H Jijakli -APEO|the company APEO]] (Agronomical Plant Extracts and Essential Oils) [[Essential oils for weeding and disease management: trial feedback, H Jijakli -APEO| ]]<nowiki/>develops a bioherbicide based on essential oils<ref>https://fr.apeosolutions.com/our-solutions#individuals</ref><ref>https://www.valbiom.be/actualites/un-bioherbicide-aux-huiles-essentielles-pour-concurrencer-le-glyphosate</ref>.

In 2011, to address issues of herbicide-resistant weeds and risks related to the use of phytosanitary products, they decided to start focusing on essential oils as a control method.

There was first a '''preselection''' of 91 essential oils among the 3000 existing, '''based on price and availability,''' to test them as fungicides and herbicides.

They were first tested as fungicides and this showed that some are toxic to plants, hence the idea to use them as herbicides.

'''Three oils among those tested were selected''' because they showed interesting properties against monocotyledons, dicotyledons, mosses and [[horsetails]].

The '''formulation''' of the essential oil is important to influence the product’s effectiveness because '''it influences the mode of action and stability''', and it can help protect the essential oil against unfavorable factors that would limit its action.

Research on the product formulation was carried out between 2015 and 2016. The initial formulation was based on chemical co-formulants, which contradicted the goal of offering an environmentally friendly product different from synthetic phytosanitary products already on the market. They were therefore replaced by biological co-formulants.

'''Tests were then conducted in greenhouses''', showing that the product with biological co-formulants was very effective against dicotyledons and somewhat less so against monocotyledons.

==== Field trials ====
The highest dose after one month is more effective than pelargonic acid and as effective as glyphosate.

The product is '''effective against dicotyledons''' and somewhat less so against monocotyledons, especially on fairly young stages.

==== Results after 5 years of trials ====
On 40 species of dicotyledons, there is equal or even superior effectiveness compared to the pelargonic acid-based product, and in 4 out of 7 cases, this is also true for monocotyledons.

Thus, there is '''good effectiveness''' for a large number of weeds, and this remains the case two months after treatment application.

==== Persistence of action ====
Persistence of action is an important parameter for an herbicide. On dicotyledons, '''after 100 days there is still good persistence of action,''' superior to that of pelargonic acid.

Moreover, this product apparently reduces the weed seed bank from one year to the next, which is not the case with pelargonic acid.

==== Mode of action ====
The action is '''multi-site''': several parts of the cell are attacked, so the product acts through several modes of action.

When the treatment is applied, organelles cluster in the middle of the cell and there is damage to cell walls, mitochondria, a desiccation effect…

As '''the product is rapidly biodegraded, within 48 to 72 hours,''' there is no impact on the subsequent crop.

==== Various products under development ====
A first product is a '''ready-to-use formulation''', the registration dossier was submitted in 2024. The goal is to start marketing it in 2026 in the United States and in 2027 in Europe.

A second product is still a prototype, with a much more concentrated formulation so that application volumes per hectare are reasonable (5 to 10L).

There is also a project to develop a selective product against dicotyledons, as current products are non-selective.

=== Bacteria and fungi ===
Researchers are working on the use of bacteria and fungi to control weeds.

== Uses of bioherbicides ==
Bioherbicides limit weed populations by producing toxic metabolites or by affecting cellular functions of plant cells, notably by degrading membranes, causing dehydration, or inhibiting germination… <ref name=":1" />.

The mode of action resembles a host/pathogen mechanism or can also resemble the phenomenon of [[allelopathy]]<ref name=":0" />.

Furthermore, for the bioherbicide to be effective, various parameters must be considered such as the phenological stage of the targeted weed, environmental conditions, and the dose of bioherbicide applied.

Bioherbicides can be used for:

* '''Specific weeding''' or spot application: fences ([[Livestock|livestock]]), yards, private gardens
* '''Weed management''' on large-scale crops before sowing
* '''Cover control''' (using a lower dose)
* '''Potato desiccation''': chemical desiccation is the most used method. But a method consisting of shredding potato tops then completing with a bioherbicide could be effective and would reduce the use of chemical products. For this method, the application of Beloukha can be a solution. However, it is a product that requires good implementation conditions (water volume, climatic conditions…) for good results<ref>https://www.arvalis.fr/infos-techniques/plusieurs-techniques-possibles-pour-defaner-les-pommes-de-terre</ref>.

* Pruning of [[vines]] and [[fruit trees]] (control of suckers in [[arboriculture]], shoot thinning of [[:Category:Vine|vine]], suckers of apple trees, pear trees, cherry trees)
* Control of grass cover in [[:Category:Vine|vineyards]]

=== Method of use ===
For the bioherbicide to be effective, it must be used at the right time and under good conditions:

* '''Between April and September''', after seed dormancy breaks;

* Temperature '''above 15°C;'''

* It is recommended to treat at '''3 to 4 leaf stage''', not exceeding 6 leaf stage

* '''Avoid rain''': a minimum delay of 2 hours is recommended between application and rain to prevent product runoff

* It is advised to '''treat when the sky is bright''' as this allows better desiccation;

* '''Two to four applications per year''' should be made according to product registration criteria;

* It is necessary to '''treat regularly over the years''', which helps reduce the seed bank in the soil;

* '''Wet the entire plant for use as an herbicide'''

* '''Follow the dosage''' indicated on the label<ref>https://www.placedupro.com/articles/1393/herbicides-de-biocontrole-une-alternative-au-desherbage</ref>.

== Effectiveness of bioherbicides ==

* Good effectiveness against '''dicotyledons'''
* Less effective against '''monocotyledons'''<ref>https://www.perspectives-agricoles.com/sites/default/files/imported_files/407_1598158642402231489.pdf</ref>
* Especially effective on '''young stages''' and during plant growth

However, depending on the compounds used, doses applied, and targeted weeds, '''bioherbicides are not necessarily effective and their environmental impact is not always well evaluated.'''

== Cost ==
Bioherbicides are generally '''more expensive to purchase than chemical herbicides''', due to production costs, small industrial scale, and sometimes lower effectiveness requiring repeated applications or higher doses.

== Sources and references ==
{{Add to project | Conserwa}}
{{Related pages}}
[[fr:Bioherbicide]]
[[es:Bioherbicida]]
[[it:Bioerbicida]]
[[de:Bioherbizid]]
[[el:Βιοζιζανιοκτόνο]]
[[nl:Bioherbicide]]
[[hu:Bioherbicide]]
[[pl:Bioherbicyd]]
[[fi:Bioherbisidi]]
[[pt:Bioherbicida]]
[[ar:مبيد أعشاب حيوي]]

Arable crop combinations

2026-02-18T12:52:56Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Grande thématique | Mots-clés SEO = meslin, varietal mix, double cropping, direct seeding, permanent cover, agroforestry, LER, milpa, permaculture
| Titre = Crop associations in arable farming
| Image = Meteil legumineuse vesce France Vosges 20180526 RC.jpg
| Portail parent = Arable crops
| Titre court = Crop association
| Description = Which crops to choose, what benefits to aim for, which combinations to avoid...
| Icone = Association de culture - Portail.png
| Glyph = Association-de-culture}}

''' [[cultures|Crop]] association''' is defined as the '''simultaneous cultivation of two or more plant species''' on the same agricultural plot<ref name=":0">Willey, The Concept of a 'Land Equivalent Ratio' and Advantages in Yields from Intercropping. 1979[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/experimental-agriculture/article/abs/concept-of-a-land-equivalent-ratio-and-advantages-in-yields-from-intercropping/836E585AC6E04B4DD94F6C2305A26B07 .https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/experimental-agriculture/article/abs/concept-of-a-land-equivalent-ratio-and-advantages-in-yields-from-intercropping/836E585AC6E04B4DD94F6C2305A26B07]</ref>. The species or varieties combined in this way do not have to be sown and harvested at the same time, and can be grown as a mixture or in alternating rows.<ref>Gayrard, L'[[association de cultures]] : technicité et [[biodiversité]]. Ecophytopic, 2020. https://ecophytopic.fr/pic/prevenir/lassociation-de-cultures-technicite-et-biodiversite</ref>. This practice offers a range of agronomic potential, the technical aspects of which are covered in this [[:Category:Portail|portal]].

==Mixed species==
===Double-harvest associations===
In this type of association, '''all the crop species are harvested'''. The most common examples are [[Méteil|meslin]] or other combinations of [[céréales|cereals]] and/or [[:Category:Grandes cultures légumineuses|legumes]]. These [[Cultiver des associations d'espèces annuelles|mixtures of annual species]] are more easily exploited on [[Polyculture-élevage|mixed livestock]] farms through the production of hay or silage, than on [[grandes cultures|arable]] farms where the grain has to be sorted after harvesting.

*Feedback from Michel Bromet (11), on the[[Introduction de méteil fourrager pour diminuer la pression adventice et sécuriser la production alimentaire - retour d'expérience (Michel Bromet - Aglae)|introduction of forage meslin]] in [[mixed farming]] (as part of the [[projet Aglae|Aglae project]]).

===Temporary associations===
This is an association between a '''main crop''', intended to be '''harvested''', and a '''secondary crop''' that will provide '''cover''' before the main crop or the following one is sown. [[Semer un colza associé|Rapeseed]] is the most frequently cited example. As with intercropping, the secondary crop generally meets a specific agronomic criterion :

*It can act as a'''green manure''', for example when a [[Associer en relai une céréale d’hiver avec une légumineuse implantée au printemps|leguminous cover crop is sown to replace a cereal crop]], or as an [[Implanter des cultures intermédiaires pièges à nitrates|Intermediate Nitrate Trapping Crop]][[CIPAN|(]]INTC).
*It can be [[:Category:Objectif|used]] to '''combat pests''' and diseases : for example, by acting as a [[Implanter des cultures pièges à bio-agresseurs|pest trap]] (example : combining [[colza|oilseed rape]] with an early cruciferous crop to trap meligetes) via a [[Combiner plantes pièges et plantes répulsives : stratégie "push-pull"|push-pull effect]], or as an [[Implanter des cultures intermédiaires à effet allélopathique ou biocide - biofumigation|allelopathic/biofumigant cover]] for [[maladies|diseases]] and pests, or [[Cultiver des espèces étouffantes|to smother]] [[adventices|weeds]].

===Permanent cover===

This type of association is set up for several years and involves widespread use of [[semis direct sous couvert végétal|direct seeding under plant cover]]. This is a technique borrowed from[[Agriculture de conservation des sols (ACS)|soil conservation agriculture]], the aim of which is to maintain [[Couverts végétaux|plant cover]] over a large part or even the entire rotation, in order to sow the main [[:Category:Cultures|crops]]. This is known as [[semis direct sous couvert végétal vivant|direct seeding under living plant cover]]. This practice is generally incompatible with[[Agriculture Biologique|Organic Farming]], as it requires the use of herbicides to regulate the cover. Whether the cover is temporary or permanent, it is vital to choose the [[Choisir un couvert végétal|composition of the plant cover]] meticulously.

*Conference by members of the MAGELLAN GIEE, on the establishment of [[Semis direct sous couvert permanent - GIEE MAGELLAN|permanent cover]].
*Feedback from Ferme du CHAUMOY (18), on the use of [[Consommer moins d'énergie en grandes cultures grâce au semis direct et aux couverts végétaux|direct seeding under cover]] (DePhy EXPE).

All the [[pratiques|practices]] relating to '''permanent cover''' can be consulted on the[[Couverts permanents en grandes cultures|"Permanent cover in arable farming]]" portal.

===Agroforestry===
[[agroforesterie|Agroforestry]] is defined as the'''association of trees and crops''' or animals on the same agricultural plot, and can therefore be considered as a mixture of species. Although difficult to implement, this practice offers a number of benefits :

*combating [[Erosion des sols|soil erosion]].
*The creation of a microclimate that favours crop yields ( [[vent|windbreak]] and limitation of evapotranspiration).
*The development of [[auxiliaires|auxiliary]][[insectes|insects]] to limit pest attacks.
*Soil conservation.

===The LER or "Land equivalent ratio===
The "land equivalent ratio" is a '''tool used to assess the [[productivité|productivity]] of a crop association''', by comparing it with the yields obtained separately for each of the associated crops.<ref name=":0" />. It is calculated as follows:

[[File:Formule de calcul de LER.png|thumbnail|LER calculation formula|alt=|centre|435x435px]]

If at the end of the calculation :

*If the '''LER = 1''', the crop association is '''as productive''' as the "pure" crop of the species that make it up.
*If the '''LER < 1''', the crop association is '''less productive''' : there is a loss of yield compared with "pure" crops.
*If the '''LER > 1''', the association is '''more productive''' than "pure" crops.

In fact, this indicator refers to the area needed "pure" to obtain the same yield as in association.

'''''Example :''''' ''A [[Triticale]] - [[pois|pea]] combination gives a total yield of 60q/ha (40q for the [[:Category:Triticale|triticale]] + 20q for the [[:Category:Pois|pea]]), and growing these two crops "pure" gives the following yields : 70q/ha for the triticale, 30q/ha for the [[pea]].''

''The calculation is : LER = 40/70 + 20/30 = 1.24.''

''A total area of 1.24 hectares would be needed to achieve the same production "pure" as from 1 hectare in combination.''

==Mixed varieties==
Although less complex from a technical point of view, '''variety mixes''' can also be considered as a crop association. The main advantage of this practice is to obtain a plant population that is more '''resilient to fungal diseases or certain pests'''. For '''cereals''', mixtures of at least '''three varieties''' are recommended, as it is estimated that one third of susceptible plants can be protected by two thirds of resistant plants. <ref>[[Chambre d'agriculture]] du Gers, Grandes Cultures : Les cultures associées : les mélanges variétaux. 2016. https://gers.chambre-agriculture.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/Occitanie/067_Inst-Gers/documents/grandescultures/Techniques_culturales_innovantes/fiche_techniques_culturales/Les_cultures_associe__es_-_les_me__langes_varie__taux.pdf</ref>.

*Feedback from Cédric Pradelles (81), on the impact of [[Limiter les maladies fongiques du blé grâce au mélange variétal - retour d'expérience (Cédric Pradelles - Aglae)|varietal mixtures in soft wheat and durum wheat]], as a lever for reducing the use of fungicides, via the [[projet Aglae|Aglae project]].
*Feedback from the [[Production intégrée à Très Bas niveau d'Intrants avec couverts intermédiaires en système blé dur-tournesol du Lauragais|System-Eco-Puissance4]] project, which uses the varietal mix lever to achieve a very low level of input in [[durum]] [[Blé|wheat]] - [[Tournesol|sunflower]] systems.

 {{Afficher les stores du portail}}

==References==
<references /> 
[[fr:Association de cultures en grandes cultures]]
[[de:Fruchtfolge im Ackerbau]]
[[el:Συνδυασμός_καλλιεργειών_σε_εκτεταμένες_καλλιέργειες]]
[[es:Asociación_de_cultivos_en_cultivos_extensivos]]
[[fi:Kasviviljelykierto_suurilla_pelloilla]]
[[hu:Növénytermesztési_társulások_nagyüzemi_gazdálkodásban]]
[[it:Rotazione_delle_colture_in_agricoltura_intensiva]]
[[nl:Gewasrotatie_in_grote_akkers]]
[[pl:Uprawa_powiązana_w_uprawach_rozległych]]
[[pt:Consórcio_de_culturas_em_culturas_de_grande_escala]]
[[ar:جمع_المحاصيل_في_الزراعة_الكبيرة]]

Adjusting Row Spacing and Seeding Density to Manage Weeds

2026-02-18T12:52:06Z

Bertrand Gorge: Add English interwiki link

{{Practice
|Organisme=Centre National d'Agroécologie
|Programme=Conserwa
|Image=Graphique biomasse culture et adventice.png
|Type de production=Field crops
|Objectif=Weeds
|Mots-clés=Weed management, Sowing techniques, No-till sowing
|ImageCapation=<ref>JACOB WEINER, HANS-WERNER GRIEPENTROG, LARS KRISTENSEN.2001. Suppression of weeds by spring wheat ''Triticumaestivum'' increases with crop density and spatial uniformity.Journal of Applied Ecology,38</ref>
}}
'''Reduce inter-row spacing''' to increase crop sowing density in order to '''intensify competition with weeds'''. This method aims to close the canopy by the crop as quickly as possible to smother weeds through light competition.

==Description==
This method is '''complementary to other agronomic levers''' for integrated weed management. It has proven effective but '''is not sufficient on its own''' and there is a lack of technical and scientific references on this practice in France. Despite its advantages, it also presents risks which will be discussed below.

In this graph, we can see the theoretical effect of crop biomass on weed biomass and yield.

If we '''increase sowing density''' (reduced inter-row spacing), the '''yield increases''' before stabilizing. A '''correlation between sowing density and weed biomass''' is observed.

The challenge is to find which density (inter-row and intra-row spacing) offers the best compromise between competition against weeds and yield while taking into account the increased establishment costs when practicing high densities.

=== In practice ===
[[File:Schéma écartement inter rang.png|thumbnail|538x538px|<ref>BAYER.2022.Reduced spacing: DEKALB evaluates compatible varieties

[2025/01/06].https://www.bayer-agri.fr/dekalb/ecartement-reduit-dekalb-evalue-les-varietes-compatibles_5585/</ref>]]
This involves '''narrowing the spacing between two rows''' but '''slightly increasing the spacing within the row''' as shown in the diagram, here in the case of [[corn]].

This can be more complicated to implement for cereals depending on the seed drill.

'''Modifying a seed drill''' to bring sowing lines closer can be '''more or less easy''' depending on the models and investments may be necessary to make these modifications.

== Advantages ==
* '''Improved competition against weeds''': reduction in the number of weed emergences and seeds produced by weeds.
* '''Rapid closure of the [[:Category:Vegetation cover|vegetation cover]]'''.
* '''More efficient use/interception of light.'''
* Reduced evaporation / '''moisture conservation.'''
* '''Lower root competition:''' more efficient use of water and minerals.
* '''Better yields''' on average when crop density is higher.

== Disadvantages ==
* '''Increased risk of fungal diseases:''' This is due to moisture retention by a dense vegetation cover. A study showed that the severity of [[wheat septoria]] is significantly worsened by high density per hectare (studied conditions: for a density of 35 kg/ha, 8% severity observed whereas for a density of 140 kg/ha it rises to 12%) but not by reduced inter-row spacing (studied conditions: 9 cm and 38 cm). It is therefore important to maintain the same densities per hectare when practicing reduced inter-row spacing. Generally, agronomic practices have less impact on the establishment of septoria epidemic foci compared to location, climate, and variety choice.

* '''Requires specific varieties:''' Some varieties may be disadvantaged depending on their phenotype and respond poorly to this management.
* '''Requires [[irrigation]]:''' This practice may not be suitable for systems under Mediterranean conditions without irrigation.
* '''Higher establishment costs:''' Increasing the number of rows requires more power to pull the seed drill and thus higher mechanization costs. If seed density per hectare is increased, an additional cost for seed must be expected.

== Impact on weed seed bank (ryegrass) ==
[[File:Tableau impact sur le ray-grass .png|thumbnail|563x563px|<ref>C P D BORGER, G RIETHMULLER, M D’ANTUONO.2016.Eleven years of integrated weed management: long-term impacts of row spacing and harvest weed seed destruction on Lolium rigidum control.Weed Research, 2016</ref>]]
An Australian study monitored [[ryegrass]] populations over a 10-year period (2003-2013, with a rotation composed of [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[rapeseed]], [[pea]] and [[chickpea]]) testing 4 inter-row spacings each year. The weed control program was the same for each treatment.

For the same rotation and similar weed control program, the trend is very clear: a '''decrease in seed number when spacing is reduced'''.

Note: The effect of reducing inter-row spacing is attenuated when the spacing is already small. For example, when reducing spacing from 36 cm to 18 cm, i.e., halving it, a reduction of more than 75% of seeds per m² at harvest is observed. Whereas if halved again to 9 cm spacing, the reduction is only 25%.

Nevertheless, this remains an interesting lever (at least 25% less ryegrass) because it is relatively easy to implement and saves on phytosanitary inputs.

== Impact on yield ==
Most articles on the subject show a trend of '''increased yields when inter-row spacing is smaller even at equal density''' on the plot, as demonstrated by DEKALB on a corn variety.
[[File:Rendement et densité.png|thumbnail|522x522px|<ref>BAYER.2022.Reduced spacing: DEKALB evaluates compatible varieties

[2025/01/06].https://www.bayer-agri.fr/dekalb/ecartement-reduit-dekalb-evalue-les-varietes-compatibles_5585/</ref>]]

Yield differences are not necessarily significant but the trend is improvement and given the competition such practices offer to weeds, this method seems relevant.
{{Clear}}

== The case of no-till sowing ==
Reducing inter-row spacing in [[no-till sowing]] can bring '''new technical constraints'''. Indeed, the "rake" effect on crop residues can be greatly amplified if sowing lines are closer, especially with a tine seed drill.

To limit this effect, it is recommended to '''arrange the tines diagonally on several beams''' (ideally 4 or even 5) each spaced 60 cm apart and with a spacing of 20 cm or even 25 cm between each tine to ensure sufficient clearance to limit clogging.

Also pay attention to the positioning of gauge wheels. They must be sufficiently spaced from the tines so as not to block residues.

== Perspectives for improvements and associated method ==
To improve the effectiveness of this practice on weed regulation, it can be combined with the [[East-West Sowing|east-west sowing]] method.

== Sources ==
This article was written by [[User:Jasmin Razongles|Jasmin Razongles]], agronomy engineering student in apprenticeship at the [[Structure:Centre National d'Agroécologie|Centre National d'Agroécologie]].

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{{Related pages}}
[[fr:Ajuster l'écartement inter rang et la densité de semis pour gérer les adventices]]
[[es:Ajustar el espaciamiento entre hileras y la densidad de siembra para controlar las malezas]]
[[it:Regolare la distanza tra le file e la densità di semina per gestire le infestanti]]
[[de:Anpassung des Reihenabstands und der Aussaatdichte zur Unkrautbekämpfung]]
[[el:Ρύθμιση της απόστασης μεταξύ των σειρών και της πυκνότητας σποράς για τη διαχείριση των ζιζανίων]]
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[[pl:Dostosowanie odstępu między rzędami i gęstości siewu w celu zwalczania chwastów]]
[[fi:Rivivälin_ja_kylvötiheyden_säätäminen_rikkakasvien_hallitsemiseksi]]
[[pt:Ajustar_o_espacamento_entre_linhas_e_a_densidade_de_semeadura_para_controlar_as_ervas_daninhas]]
[[ar:ضبط_تباعد_الصفوف_وكثافة_الزرع_لإدارة_الأعشاب_الضارة]]

Labour

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#REDIRECT [[Ploughing]]
[[el:Εργασία]]
[[es:Trabajo]]
[[fi:Työvoima]]
[[hu:Munka]]
[[it:Lavoro]]
[[nl:Arbeid]]
[[pl:Praca]]
[[pt:Trabalho]]
[[ar:العمل]]

Culture transplantation

2026-02-18T12:50:16Z

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No-till planting under cover crops

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Arable crop rotation

2026-02-18T11:55:57Z

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Reintroduction of plowing to reduce herbicide use in short rotation

2026-02-18T11:55:25Z

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Reduction of spacing and increase of sowing density to reduce weed pressure

2026-02-18T11:54:48Z

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Mechanical Weeding in the Field - Star Hoe

2026-02-18T11:53:50Z

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Prefer post-emergence herbicides over pre-emergence solutions

2026-02-18T11:51:56Z

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Companion plants to control weeds

2026-02-18T11:51:07Z

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Mulching against weeds

2026-02-18T11:48:39Z

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Managed grazing

2026-02-18T11:48:06Z

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Row orientation to limit weed growth

2026-02-18T11:46:44Z

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Occultation

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Hot foam

2026-02-18T11:45:05Z

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Weed control by cultural control

2026-02-18T11:44:39Z

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